DNB Pharmacology Question Papers, 2011–2025

DNB · Most repeated

The 10 most-repeated DNB topics

Ranked by the number of the 18 sessions with at least one question on the topic. Only topics with a PharmaNotes Pro chapter are ranked. Past repetition describes these papers; it does not predict the next exam.

1. New Drug Development & Approval Process

   asked in 6 of 18 sessions · 7 questions · latest Dec 2025 · see the questions

2. Receptor Concept & Drug-Receptor Interaction

   asked in 6 of 18 sessions · 7 questions · latest Oct 2023 · see the questions

3. Laboratory Animals in Pharmacology

   asked in 6 of 18 sessions · 6 questions · latest Jun 2025 · see the questions

4. Screening Methods for Anti-inflammatory & Analgesic Drugs

   asked in 5 of 18 sessions · 5 questions · latest Dec 2025 · see the questions

5. Pharmacovigilance

   asked in 5 of 18 sessions · 5 questions · latest Jun 2025 · see the questions

6. New Drugs & Clinical Trials Rules, 2019

   asked in 4 of 18 sessions · 5 questions · latest Dec 2022 · see the questions

7. Biomarkers in Drug Development

   asked in 4 of 18 sessions · 4 questions · latest Dec 2025 · see the questions

8. Institutional Ethics Committee (IEC)

   asked in 4 of 18 sessions · 4 questions · latest Dec 2025 · see the questions

9. Phases of Clinical Trials in Drug Development

   asked in 4 of 18 sessions · 4 questions · latest Dec 2025 · see the questions

10. High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) in Pharmacology

    asked in 4 of 18 sessions · 4 questions · latest Oct 2024 · see the questions

DNB · Every question

All 674 questions, by topic

Topics follow textbook order. A heading that links opens the PharmaNotes Pro chapter for that topic; questions not yet assigned to a chapter are listed under the textbook chapter they are filed in.

Gene Therapy

PharmaNotes Pro chapter3 questions · asked in 2 sessions · latest Dec 2025

1. Dec 2025 · Paper 3 · Q3 · 2+8 marksExplain the principle of recombinant DNA technology. Describe its applications in pharmacotherapy. [2+8]
2. Jun 2025 · Paper 2 · Q1 · 10 marksBriefly discuss stem cell therapy, its clinical applications and current scenario in India. [10]
3. Jun 2025 · Paper 4 · Q9 · 10 marksDiscuss the role of miRNA and siRNA in therapeutics. [10]

Essential Medicines & Rational Drug Use

PharmaNotes Pro chapter2 questions · asked in 2 sessions · latest Jun 2025

1. Jun 2025 · Paper 1 · Q9Briefly explain generic, branded, branded generic and pseudo-generic medicines. [2.5+2.5+2.5+2.5]
2. Dec 2014 · Paper 4 · Q8 · 2+8 marksWhat do you understand by "rational therapeutics"? Discuss briefly the rational use of antimicrobial agents with special reference to their importance in clinical practice. Give suitable examples.

Animal Toxicity Studies

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Dec 2021

1. Dec 2021 · Paper 3 · Q5 · 10 marksDiscuss the ICH guidelines for toxicity testing of new drug candidate. [10]

Biosimilars

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Jun 2025

1. Jun 2025 · Paper 1 · Q2 · 5+3+2 marksDefine various therapeutic biologics? Discuss in brief metabolism of therapeutic biologics and clinical implications. [5+3+2]

Drug Repurposing

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Apr 2023

1. Apr 2023 · Paper 4 · Q4 · 5 marksa) Repurposing of drugs. [5] b) Drugs affecting tumour angiogenesis. [5]

Novel Drug Delivery Systems (NDDS)

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Dec 2022

1. Dec 2022 · Paper 1 · Q4 · 10 marksDescribe 3D printing technology and its role in medicine and development of a drug. [10]

Structure-Activity Relationship & Computer-Aided Drug Design

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest May 2024

1. May 2024 · Paper 1 · Q3 · 10 marksDescribe the role of artificial intelligence in drug discovery and drug development. [10]

Drug Discovery: From Medicinal Plants to Computer-Aided Drug Design

No chapter link yet39 questions · asked in 14 sessions · latest Dec 2025

1. Dec 2025 · Paper 1 · Q8 · 5+5 marksDescribe the factors modifying the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of the drug in a pregnant woman. Discuss teratogenicity with suitable examples. [5+5]
2. Dec 2025 · Paper 3 · Q5 · 3+4+3 marksDiscuss the aims, methodology and limitations of acute toxicity studies done on animals. [3+4+3]
3. Dec 2025 · Paper 4 · Q7 · 3+(4+3) marksWhat is essential medicine concept? Describe the advantages and issues in adherence to ‘National list of essential medicines’ in Indian healthcare system. [3+(4+3)]
4. Jun 2025 · Paper 1 · Q10 · 10 marksExplain importance of regulatory toxicity studies for filing Investigational New Drug (IND) application. [10]
5. Jun 2025 · Paper 2 · Q2 · 10 marksBriefly discuss the role of biologics and biosimilar in the management of neoplastic diseases with suitable examples. [10]
6. Jun 2025 · Paper 3 · Q1 · 3+5+2 marksDiscuss the aims, methodology and limitations of acute toxicity studies done on animals. [3+5+2]
7. Jun 2025 · Paper 3 · Q3 · 10 marksDiscuss the concept of reverse pharmacology and its importance. [10]
8. Jun 2025 · Paper 3 · Q9 · 10 marksWhat are rare diseases. Give suitable examples. Briefly discuss the drugs for rare disease along with a note on the development process. [10]
9. Jun 2025 · Paper 4 · Q8 · 10 marksDiscuss the concept of organization of economic corporation, development guidelines and pre-clinical toxicity studies. [10]
10. Oct 2024 · Paper 1 · Q5 · 2+4+4 marksDefine Biosimilars. How are they different from Biological drugs? Describe the challenges for their use. [2+4+4]
11. Oct 2024 · Paper 3 · Q2 · 3+4+3 marksDiscuss the aims, methodology and limitations of chronic toxicity studies done on animals. [3+4+3]
12. May 2024 · Paper 1 · Q2 · 2+8 marksWhat is drug repurposing? Discuss the approaches for drug repurposing with suitable examples. [2+8]
13. May 2024 · Paper 1 · Q10 · 6+4 marksDescribe various newer drug delivery systems. Give an account of insulin pumps. [6+4]
14. May 2024 · Paper 2 · Q1 · 4+3+3 marksOutline the principles of gene therapy. Give examples of approved gene therapies. What are the major challenges for using gene therapy? [4+3+3]
15. May 2024 · Paper 2 · Q9 · 5+5 marksDiscuss the pharmacotherapy of COVID-19. Describe the vaccines developed for SARS-COV2. [5+5]
16. May 2024 · Paper 3 · Q1 · 10 marksDescribe the various preclinical carcinogenicity studies. [10]
17. Oct 2023 · Paper 1 · Q7 · 4+6 marksWhat is transdermal drug delivery? Discuss its advantages and disadvantages with suitable examples. [4+6]
18. Oct 2023 · Paper 3 · Q1 · 10 marksWrite the procedure to carry out acute toxicity studies. [10]
19. Apr 2023 · Paper 1 · Q7 · 2+4+4 marksWhat is targeted drug delivery system? Describe the properties of ideal targeted drug delivery. Mention the different strategies of drug targeting. [2+4+4]
20. Apr 2023 · Paper 3 · Q5 · 3+4+3 marksDiscuss the aims, methods and limitations of acute toxicity studies on animals. [3+4+3]
21. Jun 2022 · Paper 3 · Q10 · 5+5 marksDiscuss Organization of Economic Corporation and Development(OECD) and Non-clinical toxicity studies for drug development. [5+5]
22. Dec 2021 · Paper 1 · Q9 · 10 marksDiscuss the role of structure activity relationship in drug development and use. [10]
23. Dec 2021 · Paper 4 · Q4 · 2+8 marksDefine drug utilization studies. Discuss the role of drug utilization studies in improving rational use of drugs. [2+8]
24. Dec 2020 · Paper 1 · Q4 · 5+5 marksMention drug delivery systems or formulations that are used for providing constant drug concentration in the body over long periods? How do they achieve their therapeutic benefit compared to other dosage forms? 5+5
25. Jun 2020 · Paper 1 · Q3 · 5+5 marksa) Fetal therapeutics. b) Teratogenicity. 5+5
26. Jun 2020 · Paper 1 · Q5 · 5+5 marksa) Performance enhancing drugs. b) Biosimilars. 5+5
27. Jun 2020 · Paper 1 · Q8 · 5+5 marksa) Explain nanoparticle dosage forms and their clinical applications. b) Drug clearance. 5+5
28. Jun 2020 · Paper 1 · Q9 · 5+5 marksWhat is NLEM and its importance? What are the important factors taken into consideration for inclusion of drugs in the NLEM? 5+5
29. Jun 2020 · Paper 4 · Q4 · 5+5 marksa) Microdosing Studies. b) Biosimilars. 5+5
30. Jun 2020 · Paper 4 · Q8 · 5+5 marksa) Drug repurposing. b) Microbiota in therapeutics. 5+5
31. Dec 2016 · Paper 1 · Q7 · 5+5 marksa) Targeted drug delivery. b) Its utility in clinical practice. 5+5
32. Dec 2016 · Paper 4 · Q7 · 4+6 marksa) What are essential medicines? b) National List of essential medicines. 4+6
33. Dec 2016 · Paper 4 · Q9 · 5+5 marksa) Responsibilities of sponsor of a clinical trial as per the Indian GCP guidelines. b) Orphan drugs. 5+5
34. Dec 2016 · Paper 4 · Q10 · 5+5 marksa) Biosimilars b) Pharmacotherapy of Alzheimer’s disease. 5+5 **********************
35. Dec 2015 · Paper 1 · Q7 · 4+6 marksa) Principles of nanotechnology; b) Different type of nano preparations and their advantages and limitations. 4+6
36. Dec 2015 · Paper 1 · Q8 · 5+5 marksa) Rational use of drug. b) How to implement it in clinical practice? 5+5
37. Dec 2014 · Paper 4 · Q2 · 2+(4+4) marksWhat are the different new drug delivery systems available for clinical use? Discuss merits and demerits of each one of them giving suitable examples.
38. Dec 2014 · Paper 4 · Q10 · 2+8 marksWhat is Essential Medicine Concept? Discuss the use of Essential Medicine list for all individual stakeholders in the health care system.
39. Dec 2013 · Paper 4 · Q6 · 2+4+4 marksWhat do you understand by Novel Drug Delivery System (NDDS)? What are the objectives of developing NDDS? Describe targeted delivery of drugs by particulate carriers.

Bioavailability and Bioequivalence Studies

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Oct 2023

1. Oct 2023 · Paper 1 · Q4 · 2+8 marksWhat are generic medicines? Discuss the methods to establish their efficacy with regard to branded counterparts. [2+8]

Chronopharmacology & Chronotherapeutics

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Jun 2022

1. Jun 2022 · Paper 1 · Q5 · 10 marksDescribe clinical significance of Chrono-pharmacology with examples. [10]

Drug Dosage Principles & Individualisation

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Jun 2022

1. Jun 2022 · Paper 1 · Q4 · 10 marksWrite about prescribing medicine for special populations such as children, pregnant women and geriatric populations. [10]

Pharmacokinetics: ADME

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Dec 2014

1. Dec 2014 · Paper 1 · Q1 · 4+(3+3) marksDescribe the various ways by which drugs are transported across cellular membranes. Discuss the implications and clinical usefulness of the influence of pH in this transport.

Pharmacometrics

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Jun 2025

1. Jun 2025 · Paper 1 · Q3 · 10 marksDescribe importance of systems pharmacology. [10]

Pharmacokinetics: ADME

No chapter link yet88 questions · asked in 18 sessions · latest Dec 2025

1. Dec 2025 · Paper 1 · Q2 · 5+5 marksDescribe the different membrane transporters involved in neuronal reuptake of the neurotransmitters and drugs affecting their regulation in brain. [5+5]
2. Dec 2025 · Paper 1 · Q3 · 5 marksDescribe the importance of the following in pharmacotherapy with suitable examples: a) Tachyphylaxis and tolerance. [5] b) Cytochrome polymorphism. [5]
3. Dec 2025 · Paper 1 · Q7 · 3+7 marksWhat is ‘Bioenhancer’? Describe factors affecting drug absorption with suitable examples. [3+7]
4. Dec 2025 · Paper 1 · Q9 · 3+(4+3) marksWhat is therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM)? Describe the utility and limitations of TDM in a hospital setting. [3+(4+3)]
5. Dec 2025 · Paper 2 · Q10 · 5+5 marksEnumerate the different hematopoietic growth factors. Describe the drug therapy for anaemia due to chronic renal failure. [5+5]
6. Dec 2025 · Paper 4 · Q4 · 5 marksDescribe the following: a) Pharmacometrics. [5] b) Pharmacogenomics. [5]
7. Dec 2025 · Paper 4 · Q8 · 3+7 marksDefine Pharmacoeconomics. Describe different types of Pharmacoeconomic studies. [3+7]
8. Jun 2025 · Paper 1 · Q1 · 10 marksDescribe physiologically based pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamics models (Pb-PK-PD) and their clinical applications. [10]
9. Oct 2024 · Paper 1 · Q3 · 2+4+4 marksWhat is plasma half-life of a drug? Discuss clinical importance of knowing plasma half-life of a drug. Write the differences between plasma half-life and biological half-life of a drug. [2+4+4]
10. Oct 2024 · Paper 1 · Q4 · (2+2)+6 marksDefine the terms Bioavailability & Bioequivalence respectively. What are the guidelines for conduct of Bioavailability & Bioequivalence study of Investigational New Drug (IND) as per the “New Drugs & Clinical trials rules 2019”? [(2+2)+6]
11. Oct 2024 · Paper 1 · Q7 · 2+8 marksDefine the phenomenon of genetic polymorphism. Describe its role in clinical practice by giving suitable examples. [2+8]
12. Oct 2024 · Paper 1 · Q8 · 3+3+4 marksWhat do you understand by Individualization of drug therapy? Enumerate the factors which influence action of various drugs. Discuss how pathological conditions affect the drug action. [3+3+4]
13. May 2024 · Paper 1 · Q5 · 2+8 marksWhat is drug clearance? Briefly discuss types of elimination kinetics with examples. [2+8]
14. May 2024 · Paper 1 · Q9 · 2+8 marksDefine pharmacoeconomics. Describe the various methods for pharmacoeconomic analysis with examples. [2+8]
15. May 2024 · Paper 2 · Q2 · 5+2+2+1 marksBriefly discuss the pharmacotherapy of acute myocardial infarction. What is the therapeutic status, drug drug interactions and adverse effects of clopidogrel in the management of myocardial infarction? [5+2+2+1]
16. Oct 2023 · Paper 1 · Q1 · 10 marksDescribe the role of membrane transporters in mediating adverse drug responses with suitable examples. [10]
17. Oct 2023 · Paper 1 · Q5 · 10 marksDiscuss the factors contributing in the variation of drug metabolism with suitable examples of each. [10]
18. Oct 2023 · Paper 1 · Q6 · 3+7 marksWhat is therapeutic drug monitoring? Discuss the best practices for therapeutic drug monitoring in neuropsychopharmacology. [3+7]
19. Oct 2023 · Paper 1 · Q10 · 10 marksWhat is the therapeutic index? Discuss the clinical significance of number - needed to treat (NNT). [10]
20. Oct 2023 · Paper 2 · Q8 · 5+2+3 marksClassify drugs used in the treatment of bronchial asthma. Write mechanism of action and drug- drug interactions of methylxanthines. [5+2+3]
21. Oct 2023 · Paper 4 · Q4 · 5+5 marksWhat are the principle dimensions of quality of life studies? Explain how quality of life is utilised in pharmacoeconomic analysis of therapies. [5+5]
22. Apr 2023 · Paper 1 · Q1 · 3+5+2 marksExplain plateau principle by plotting a graph? How the steady state of drugs is acheived and give suitable examples. Discuss its clinical importance. [3+5+2]
23. Apr 2023 · Paper 1 · Q4 · 4+6 marksEnumerate the factors affecting biotransformation of drugs. Discuss their role and impact on patient outcomes with suitable examples. [4+6]
24. Apr 2023 · Paper 1 · Q9 · 5 marksa) Define adverse drug reaction. Discuss the types of adverse drug reactions with suitable examples. What is their importance in drug development? [1+2+2] b) Discuss about clinical significance of plasma protein binding of a drug with suitable examples. [5]
25. Apr 2023 · Paper 1 · Q10 · 5 marksa) ABC transporters. [5] b) Cytochrome polymorphism. [5]
26. Apr 2023 · Paper 2 · Q4 · 5 marksBriefly discuss the following: a) Drug interactions of warfarin. [5] b) Artemisinin based combination therapy. [5]
27. Apr 2023 · Paper 2 · Q5 · 3+3+4 marksEnumerate the drugs used in treatment of tuberculosis. Discuss the rational of multi drug thrapy for tuberculosis. Discuss the mechanism of action, pharmacokinetics, adverse drug reacions and uses of Rifampicin. [3+3+4]
28. Dec 2022 · Paper 1 · Q5 · 2+4+4 marksWhat is bioavailability? What are the factors affecting bioavailability of a drug? What are the methods for estimation of bioavailability? [2+4+4]
29. Dec 2022 · Paper 1 · Q8 · 6+4 marksWhat are the principles for prescribing drugs in geriatric population? Enumerate and discuss the challenges with their solutions to ensure that the pharmacotherapy is appropriate. [6+4]
30. Dec 2022 · Paper 1 · Q9 · 2+8 marksDefine pharmacogenetics. Describe the significance of pharmacogenetic testing in clinical settings with examples? [2+8]
31. Jun 2022 · Paper 1 · Q1 · 10 marksPharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic(PK-PD) Modelling in Drug Development. [10]
32. Jun 2022 · Paper 1 · Q2 · 10 marksTherapeutic Drug Monitoring and its relevance in clinical practice. [10]
33. Jun 2022 · Paper 1 · Q6 · 5+5 marksWhat is first order and zero order kinetics? Discuss their clinical significance with relevant examples. [5+5]
34. Jun 2022 · Paper 1 · Q9 · 3+3+4 marksWhat is volume of distribution? Write its clinical significance. Discuss the factors which can affect volume of distribution with examples. [3+3+4]
35. Jun 2022 · Paper 1 · Q10 · 6+4 marksExplain Bio-availability and Bioequivalence with suitable graph. How are bioequivalence studies carried out? [6+4]
36. Dec 2021 · Paper 1 · Q1 · 2+4+4 marksWrite what are drug interactions? Discuss different types of drug interactions. Give examples of useful and harmful drug interactions. [2+4+4]
37. Dec 2021 · Paper 1 · Q3 · 2+2+6 marksWhat is First pass metabolism? Write the sites of first pass metabolism. Discuss its clinical significance giving suitable examples. [2+2+6]
38. Dec 2021 · Paper 1 · Q4 · 2+3+3+2 marksDefine bioavailability of a drug. What are the pharmacokinetic parameters required for measuring bioavailability of a drug? Write the factors which can affect bioavailability of a drug? How can knowledge of bioavailability of a drug be used to improve patient therapy? [2+3+3+2]
39. Dec 2021 · Paper 1 · Q5 · 2+4+4 marksDefine plasma half life of a drug. Discuss its clinical significance. What are the determinants of plasma half life of a drug? [2+4+4]
40. Jun 2021 · Paper 1 · Q2 · 2 marksa) Enumerate various pharmacokinetic parameters of a drug. [4] b) Discuss their clinical significance by giving suitables. [4] c) Describe the factors influencing the frequency of dosing of drug to a patient. [2]
41. Jun 2021 · Paper 1 · Q3 · 5 marksa) What do you understand by the term “therapeutic index”? [5] b) How will you determine therapeutic window for a new experimental drug? [5]
42. Jun 2021 · Paper 1 · Q4 · 4 marksa) Describe the term pharmacoeconomics. [2] b) Enumerate the criteria used to analyse cost and benefit. [4] c) Discuss the various methods for pharmacoeconomic analysis. [4]
43. Jun 2021 · Paper 1 · Q5 · 5 marksa) What are CYP 450 families and their role in drug metabolism? [5] b) Discuss the clinical significance of enzyme inhibition and its therapeutic implications. [5]
44. Jun 2021 · Paper 1 · Q6 · 10 marksDiscuss in brief the requirement and methods for dose adjustment in renal diseases. [10]
45. Jun 2021 · Paper 1 · Q7 · 5 marksa) Role of pharmacokinetic/ pharmacodynamic modelling in drug research and development. [5] b) Biased agonism. [5]
46. Jun 2021 · Paper 1 · Q10 · 5 marksa) Genetic polymorphism. [5] b) Rational use of medicine. [5]
47. Dec 2020 · Paper 1 · Q1 · 5+5 marksWrite the significance of steady state of a drug. Define and explain the role of pharmacokinetics in determining: a) Loading dose. b) Maintenance dose. 5+5
48. Dec 2020 · Paper 1 · Q2 · 5+5 marksHow is bio-equivalence different from bio-availability? Highlight the difficulties in determining bioequivalence between the innovator molecule with its bio-similar in biologic drugs. 5+5
49. Dec 2020 · Paper 1 · Q6 · 2+6+2 marksDescribe pharmacokinetics. Differentiate between first and zero order kinetics. Write the clinical significance of knowing the kinetic order of a drug. 2+6+2
50. Dec 2020 · Paper 1 · Q7 · 2+6+2 marksDefine therapeutic drug monitoring. Mention the characteristics of drugs which are the appropriate candidates for therapeutic drug monitoring. Describe precautions while doing therapeutic drug monitoring. 2+6+2 P.T.O. FINAL EXAM NATIONAL BOARD OF EXAMINATIONS DECEMBER 2020 -2- POSSESSION/USE OF CELL PHONES OR ANY SUCH ELECTRONIC GADGETS IS NOT PERMITTED INSIDE THE EXAMINATION HALL. PHARMACOLOGY PAPER-I
51. Jun 2020 · Paper 1 · Q1 · 6+4 marksWhat is the importance of ABC transporters in drug absorption & elimination? Enumerate the drugs which are significantly affected by ABC transporters. 6+4
52. Jun 2020 · Paper 1 · Q4Discuss the application of clinical pharmacokinetic principles in drug development. 10
53. Jun 2020 · Paper 1 · Q6 · 3+3+4 marksWhat is Pharmacogenetics? Describe its principles. Discuss its role in clinical practice. 3+3+4
54. Jun 2020 · Paper 1 · Q7Discuss how the principles of chronopharmacology can improve drug therapy. 10
55. Jun 2020 · Paper 2 · Q5 · 5+5 marksa) Therapeutic applications of monoclonal antibodies with suitable examples. b) Write mechanism of action, indications, adverse effects and important precautions while prescribing methotrexate. 5+5
56. Dec 2016 · Paper 1 · Q1 · 5+5 marksa) Define bioavailability and its clinical relevance. b) Compare and contrast between bioequivalence and therapeutic equivalence. 5+5
57. Dec 2016 · Paper 1 · Q3 · 2+3 marksa) Compare and contrast between Therapeutic Index and Therapeutic Window. b) Factors influencing first pass metabolism of drugs and therapeutic implication of this phenomenon. 5+(2+3)
58. Dec 2016 · Paper 1 · Q8 · 2+3+5 marksa) Define chronopharmacology. b) Aims of chronopharmacology. c) Utility of chronopharmacology in clinical practice. 2+3+5
59. Dec 2016 · Paper 1 · Q10 · 5+5 marksa) ABC transporters. b) Clinical relevance of these transporters. 5+5 **********************
60. Dec 2016 · Paper 2 · Q2 · 5+5 marksa) Pharmacotherapy of MDR & XDR tuberculosis. b) Adverse effects, precautions and important drug interactions of rifampicin. 5+5
61. Dec 2016 · Paper 4 · Q6 · 4+2+2 marksa) Indications, limitations and advantages of therapeutic drug monitoring. b) Examples of drugs for which therapeutic drug monitoring is recommended. (4+2+2)+2
62. Dec 2015 · Paper 1 · Q1 · 4+4 marksa) Enumerate basic pharmacokinetic parameters. b) Elaborate pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic (PK-PD) modeling of different compartmental models, and its clinical implication. 2+(4+4)
63. Dec 2015 · Paper 1 · Q3 · 3+2 marksa) Cytochrome P450 families. b) Clinical consequences of enzyme induction and therapeutic implication of this phenomenon. 5+(3+2)
64. Dec 2015 · Paper 2 · Q5 · 2+2 marksa) Classify anti-epileptic drugs. b) Mechanism of action and therapeutic use of phenytoin. c) Treatment of status epilepticus. 2+(2+2)+4
65. Dec 2015 · Paper 2 · Q7 · 2+2+3 marksa) Mention immuno suppressive agents. b) Mechanism of action, adverse effect and use of cyclosporine. 3+(2+2+3)
66. Dec 2015 · Paper 2 · Q10 · 4+6 marksa) First line and second line drugs used in tuberculosis. b) Adverse effect, drug interactions and precaution of Rifampicin and its analogs. 4+6 **********************
67. Dec 2015 · Paper 3 · Q5 · 2+8 marksWhat are drug-drug and Drug food interactions? Describe physiological, pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic factors responsible for drug-drug and drug Food interactions mentioning suitable examples. 2+8
68. Dec 2015 · Paper 4 · Q6 · 5+5 marksa) Therapeutic drug monitoring of immunosuppressive drug. b) Accreditation of the therapeutic drug monitoring laboratory. 5+5
69. Dec 2014 · Paper 1 · Q2 · 2+4+4 marksEnumerate the various pharmacokinetic parameters. Mention their clinical implications giving suitable examples. What are the factors that influence and determine frequency of drug administration?
70. Dec 2014 · Paper 1 · Q4 · 5+5 marksDescribe "Drug Safety Index". How will you determine the "Therapeutic Window" for a new experimental drug?
71. Dec 2014 · Paper 3 · Q4 · 4+6 marksEnumerate the antimicrobial agents used in treatment of Urinary Tract Infection (UTI) based on their spectrum of activity. Discuss the management of UTI caused by gram -ve infection in a patient of renal failure.
72. Dec 2014 · Paper 3 · Q7 · 2+(4+4) marksWhat are drug interactions? Describe the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic factors responsible for drug interactions giving suitable examples.
73. Dec 2014 · Paper 3 · Q8 · 2+(2+2+2+2) marksEnumerate the clinically used haemopoietic growth factors. Discuss briefly the mechanism of action, therapeutic uses, therapeutic monitoring and adverse effects of recombinant erythropoietin.
74. Dec 2014 · Paper 4 · Q5 · (2+2)+4+2 marksWhat do you understand by the terms pharmacogenetics and genomics? Discuss the role of pharmacogenetic variations that can influence drug therapy. Discuss the role of pharmacogenetics in clinical practice.
75. Dec 2014 · Paper 4 · Q7 · 2+(2+2+2+2) marksWhat do you understand by the term "Therapeutic Drug Monitoring" (TDM)? Discuss giving suitable example, how you conduct TDM at: a) Pharmaceutic level b) Pharmacokinetic level c) Pharmacodynamic level d) Therapeutic level
76. Dec 2014 · Paper 4 · Q9 · 3+3+4 marksDiscuss the role of clinical pharmacological laboratories in improving drug therapy with special reference to: a) Measurement of plasma drug concentration b) Plasma-concentration-effect relationship c) Therapeutic drug monitoring. Give suitable examples to illustrate your answers.
77. Dec 2013 · Paper 1 · Q1 · 3+3+4 marksDefine the term Bioavailability and Bioequivalence. Describe the factors that would influence these. Discuss their clinical relevance giving suitable examples.
78. Dec 2013 · Paper 1 · Q2 · 4+6 marksWhat do you understand by 'genetic polymorphism'? Discuss briefly at least two recognized genetic varieties of phase I drug metabolism polymorphism giving suitable examples.
79. Dec 2013 · Paper 1 · Q3 · 5+5 marksDescribe the terms plasma half life & biological half life of drugs. Discuss briefly the factors that determine the time course of a drug in the body. Give suitable examples to illustrate your answers.
80. Dec 2013 · Paper 3 · Q4 · 2+8 marksDescribe "Pharmaco economics". Discuss briefly the parameters used for estimating them.
81. Dec 2012 · Paper 1 · Q4 · 2+2+6 marksDescribe the terms 'therapeutic index' and 'therapeutic window'. Give detailed procedure for evaluating the therapeutic index of a drug.
82. Dec 2012 · Paper 1 · Q8 · 4+2+2+2 marksEnumerate the pharmacokinetic parameters that are required to arrive at the dosage of a drug (give suitable examples). Explain the following terms: a) Daily dose of a drug b) Loading dose c) Maintenance dose
83. Dec 2012 · Paper 3 · Q1 · 2+(2+2+2+2) marksEnumerate the intravenous general anesthetic agents. Discuss the mechanism of action, indications, contraindications and pharmacokinetics for each of these agents.
84. Dec 2012 · Paper 4 · Q4 · 2+4+4 marksList the different routes for drug administration. Discuss briefly the merits and demerits of oral route and intramuscular route of drug administration. Explain how the route of drug administration can modify the action of a drug.
85. Dec 2011 · Paper 1 · Q3 · 2+2+6 marksOutline the importance of therapeutic drug monitoring. Explain 2+2+6 target level strategy in drug monitoring. Give examples of clinical eonditions and drugs requiring monitoring.
86. Dec 2011 · Paper 1 · Q8 · 2+4+4 marksWhat is Pharmacogenomics? Discuss its applications in drug 2+4+4 discovery research and in drug-safety.
87. Dec 2011 · Paper 2 · Q5 · 5+5 marksDiscuss clinically applicable classification of glucocorticoids 5+5 with appropriate examples. Enumerate the side effects and drug interactions on chronic use of glucocorticoids.
88. Dec 2011 · Paper 4 · Q7 · 3+7 marks.Enumerate the membrane transporters. Discuss the 3+7 pharmacological importance of these membrane transporters giving suitable examples to illustrate your answers.

Receptor Concept & Drug-Receptor Interaction

PharmaNotes Pro chapter7 questions · asked in 6 sessions · latest Oct 2023

1. Oct 2023 · Paper 1 · Q9 · 5+5 marksWhat are the various signaling mechanisms of G protein coupled receptors? Briefly discuss the drugs modifying adenylyl cyclase. [5+5]
2. Apr 2023 · Paper 1 · Q8 · 2+8 marksWhat is drug receptor? Describe the various types of receptors with their distribution/location(s) in the body and mention one agonist and antagonist of each receptor. [2+8]
3. Dec 2021 · Paper 1 · Q2 · 4+3+3 marksWrite the cellular signaling pathways involved in drug action. Discuss the role of cellular signaling pathways in drug development and use. [4+3+3]
4. Dec 2021 · Paper 1 · Q8 · 2+4+4 marksDiscuss the dose response relationship. What pharmacological, clinically relevant information can be obtained from a dose response curve? Compare a dose response curve with a log dose response curve. [2+4+4]
5. Jun 2021 · Paper 1 · Q1 · 10 marksDiscuss various targets of drug action along with suitable examples. [10]
6. Dec 2013 · Paper 1 · Q5 · 2+8 marksEnumerate the various targets for drug action. Describe them by quoting suitable examples.
7. Dec 2011 · Paper 1 · Q6 · 4+6 marksEnumerate the methods used in the quantification of receptors. 4+6 Explain briefly Radio-Ligand binding technique with procedure and precautions.

Drug Interactions

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Dec 2020

1. Dec 2020 · Paper 1 · Q3What are isobolograms? Mention their role in determining combined drug effects. 10

Pharmacodynamics: Molecular Mechanisms of Drug Action

No chapter link yet20 questions · asked in 12 sessions · latest Dec 2025

1. Dec 2025 · Paper 1 · Q1 · 4+6 marksWhat are different types of receptors for drug action? Describe nuclear receptors with examples. [4+6]
2. Oct 2024 · Paper 1 · Q6 · 5 marksa) Periodic safety update report (PSUR). [5] b) Receptor regulation. [5]
3. Oct 2024 · Paper 1 · Q9 · 5 marksCompare & contrast between the following: a. Autoreceptors versus Heteroreceptors. [5] b. Drug specificity versus Drug selectivity. [5]
4. Oct 2024 · Paper 3 · Q10 · 5 marksCompare & contrast between the following: a) Parametric versus Non-parametric tests. [5] b) pD2 value versus pA2 value. [5]
5. May 2024 · Paper 1 · Q1 · 2+4+4 marksDefine drug antagonism. Describe various types of drug antagonism with suitable examples. Briefly discuss the methods for determination of drug antagonism? [2+4+4]
6. Oct 2023 · Paper 3 · Q9 · 5+5 marksDescribe various methods to quantify drug antagonism. Write formula and precautions used in calculating dose-ratio. [5+5]
7. Apr 2023 · Paper 1 · Q2 · 3+4+3 marksWhat is dose-response relationship of a drug? Describe the differences between dose-response curve and log dose-response curve by plotting suitable graphs? Describe drug potency and drug efficacy with examples? [3+4+3]
8. Apr 2023 · Paper 1 · Q3 · 4+6 marksWhat is an inverse agonist? Describe its clinical significance with suitable examples. [4+6]
9. Apr 2023 · Paper 1 · Q6 · 5 marksBriefly describe with suitable examples: a) Fixed dose drug combinations. [5] b) Drug antagonism. [5]
10. Dec 2022 · Paper 1 · Q1 · 2+4+4 marksDefine drug synergism with suitable examples. Describe isobologram for quantification of drug synergism. Discuss the status of drug synergism in antimicrobial therapy? [2+4+4]
11. Dec 2022 · Paper 1 · Q3 · 4+6 marksEnumerate the various transduction mechanisms involved in drug action with suitable examples. Briefly discuss the role of GPCRs in signal transduction and drug action. [4+6]
12. Dec 2022 · Paper 2 · Q7 · 5+5 marksDescribe presynaptic receptors and their therapeutic implications. [5+5]
13. Dec 2020 · Paper 1 · Q5 · 5+5 marksDiscuss the differences between Graded versus Quantal Dose Response Curve. Describe the clinical relevance of studying these curves. 5+5
14. Dec 2020 · Paper 1 · Q10 · 3+2+5 marksExplain what you under by drug antagonism. Enumerate different types of antagonists in pharmacology. Explain details of receptor antagonism. 3+2+5 *************
15. Jun 2020 · Paper 1 · Q10 · 5+5 marksa) Inverse agonist. b) Importance of drug food interaction. 5+5 ************
16. Dec 2016 · Paper 1 · Q6 · 2+4+4 marksa) Define pA2 value. b) Method of determination of pA2 value. c) Applications of pA2 determination. 2+4+4
17. Dec 2013 · Paper 1 · Q8 · 4+3+3 marksWhat do you understand by pD2 & pA2 values? How do they differ from each other? What is the relevance of their calculation?
18. Dec 2013 · Paper 4 · Q4 · 7+3 marksDescribe the various type of drug antagonism along with their mechanism. Give suitable examples to illustrate your answer.
19. Dec 2012 · Paper 1 · Q7 · 2+8 marksEnumerate the different types of drug-receptor interactions. Describe each one of them in detail using examples to illustrate them.
20. Dec 2011 · Paper 4 · Q9 · 2+5+3 marksDefine drug antagonism. Discuss various types of drug 2+5+3 antagonism with suitable examples. Give examples of use of antagonists in poisonings.

Drug Metabolism

No chapter link yet4 questions · asked in 4 sessions · latest Apr 2023

1. Apr 2023 · Paper 4 · Q1 · 5 marksa) Define pharmacoinformatics & discuss its applications. [5] b) Microdosing strategy in clinical trials. [5]
2. Dec 2022 · Paper 1 · Q7 · 4+(3+3) marksGive an account of phase 0 clinical trials. Discuss the advantages and limitations for conducting such trials? [4+(3+3)]
3. Jun 2022 · Paper 1 · Q7 · 5+5 marksWrite about enzyme inducers and enzyme inhibitors. Describe their clinical importance with suitable examples. [5+5]
4. Dec 2012 · Paper 3 · Q9 · 4+6 marksWhat is 'micro dosing' in clinical trial? What are the advantages and limitations of micro-dosing concept?

The GI Microbiome and Drug Response

No chapter link yet4 questions · asked in 3 sessions · latest Jun 2025

1. Jun 2025 · Paper 4 · Q2 · 10 marksDescribe briefly future of drugs and the microbiome. [10]
2. Jun 2025 · Paper 4 · Q6 · 10 marksWhat are the pros and cons of combining probiotics with antibiotic therapy? Discuss briefly the rationality/irrationality of the combinations available in the Indian market. [10]
3. May 2024 · Paper 4 · Q5 · 10 marksDiscuss the recent developments in microbiome based therapeutics. [10]
4. Dec 2021 · Paper 4 · Q9 · 4+6 marksWhat do you understand by the human microbiome? What is the role of microbiome in health and disease? [4+6]

Pharmacogenetics and Pharmacogenomics

No chapter link yet5 questions · asked in 4 sessions · latest Dec 2025

1. Dec 2025 · Paper 4 · Q2 · 3+7 marksWhat is precision medicine? Describe the precision medicine approach in critical care medicine. [3+7]
2. Apr 2023 · Paper 1 · Q5 · 2+4+4 marksDefine evidence based medicine (EBM). What are the principles of EBM? Briefly discuss the five steps of EBM model. [2+4+4]
3. Apr 2023 · Paper 4 · Q8 · 5 marksDiscuss the role of artificial intelligence in pharmacotherapeutics, specifically: a) Clinical Medicine. [5] b) Research. [5]
4. Dec 2021 · Paper 1 · Q10 · 2+8 marksWhat is personalized medicine? Discuss the role of Pharmacology in delivering personalized medicine. [2+8]
5. Dec 2015 · Paper 4 · Q5 · 2+3+5 marksa) Define biomarker. b) Uses of biomarkers for personalized medicine. c) Biomarker regulatory validation. 2+3+5

Pharmacovigilance

PharmaNotes Pro chapter5 questions · asked in 5 sessions · latest Jun 2025

1. Jun 2025 · Paper 4 · Q7 · 10 marksDiscuss the materiovigilance programme of India (MvPI) with suitable examples. [10]
2. Apr 2023 · Paper 4 · Q6 · 5 marksa) Cosmetovigilance. [5] b) Publication ethics. [5]
3. Dec 2022 · Paper 3 · Q3 · 10 marksDiscuss the methods for detecting safety related issues of recently authorized drug which got marketing approval without undergoing phase 3 clinical trials. [10]
4. Jun 2020 · Paper 4 · Q5 · 5+5 marksa) Hemovigilance. b) Drug utilization metrics. 5+5
5. Dec 2015 · Paper 4 · Q7 · 5+5 marksa) Signal review of medicinal product b) Biovigilance 5+5

Pharmacoepidemiology

PharmaNotes Pro chapter3 questions · asked in 3 sessions · latest Dec 2025

1. Dec 2025 · Paper 3 · Q6 · 2+8 marksWhat is ‘Real World Data’? How real-world clinical trials differ from traditional clinical trials? [2+8]
2. May 2024 · Paper 4 · Q7 · 5+(3+2) marksDescribe pragmatic clinical trials. Briefly discuss their advantages and limitations? [5+(3+2)]
3. Jun 2021 · Paper 4 · Q4 · 5 marksa) Drug utilisation studies. [5] b) Expedited safety reporting. [5]

Postmarketing Drug Safety

No chapter link yet32 questions · asked in 18 sessions · latest Dec 2025

1. Dec 2025 · Paper 1 · Q4 · 2+(4+4) marksWhat is a signal in pharmacovigilance? Describe the various approaches to signal detection & discuss signal management. [2+(4+4)]
2. Jun 2025 · Paper 1 · Q6 · 7+3 marksHow is the quality of medicine assessed? When is a medicine categorized as not of standard quality (NSQ), spurious and counterfeit medicine? [7+3]
3. Oct 2024 · Paper 1 · Q1 · 2+5+3 marksDefine Pharmacovigilance. Describe Pharmacovigilance Programme of India. Discuss various challenges faced by this Programme. [2+5+3]
4. Oct 2024 · Paper 1 · Q2 · 2+4+4 marksDefine medication errors. What are the various types of medication errors? Discuss the strategies to prevent medication errors. [2+4+4]
5. May 2024 · Paper 1 · Q6 · 7+3 marksWhat are the roles and responsibilities of data and safety monitoring board (DSMB)? Discuss in brief the various meeting formats of DSMB. [7+3]
6. Oct 2023 · Paper 4 · Q6 · 3+7 marksWhat is an adverse event? Discuss the rationale for the pharmacovigilance and various methods used. [3+7]
7. Apr 2023 · Paper 4 · Q3 · 7+3 marksDiscuss the role of pharmacovigilance in patient safety. Write your opinion on the impact of the pharmacovigilance program of India on patient safety. [7+3]
8. Apr 2023 · Paper 4 · Q5 · 2+5+3 marksDefine counterfeit spurious medicines. Discuss the stategies to mitigate spurious drugs. Give your view-point on the trade of fake medicines at the time of Covid-19 pandemic. [2+5+3]
9. Apr 2023 · Paper 4 · Q10 · 3+(4+3) marksWhat is 'Off label' use of drugs? Discuss the ethical issues and regulation of 'Off label' use of drugs in India. [3+(4+3)]
10. Dec 2022 · Paper 1 · Q6 · 2+4+4 marksWhat is materiovigilance? Outline the materiovigilance programme of India. What are the categories and criteria for causality assessment under materiovigilance? [2+4+4]
11. Jun 2022 · Paper 1 · Q3 · 10 marksDiscuss the role and importance of spontaneous pharmacovigilance system in developing countries. [10]
12. Jun 2022 · Paper 1 · Q8 · 5+5 marksDescribe medication errors and patient’s safety. Enumerate different systems to prevent medication error in a tertiary care hospital. [5+5]
13. Jun 2022 · Paper 2 · Q10 · 2+(2+2+2+2) marksWrite classification of non steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Discuss the mechanism of action, adverse drug reactions, uses and contraindications of aspirin. [2+(2+2+2+2)]
14. Jun 2022 · Paper 4 · Q3 · 2+8 marksWhat is Signal? Discuss the role of Signal Review Committee in Pharmacovigilance programme of India (PvPI). [2+8]
15. Dec 2021 · Paper 1 · Q6 · 2+2+6 marksDefine pharmacovigilance. Does pharmacovigilance have any role in improving patient treatment outcomes? Discuss giving suitable examples in support of your answer. [2+2+6]
16. Dec 2021 · Paper 2 · Q6 · 5+5 marksDiscuss the Pharmacotherapy of leprosy. What allergic drug reactions can be expected with some antileprosy drugs. [5+5]
17. Dec 2021 · Paper 4 · Q6 · 10 marksDiscuss the role of Pharmacologists in Ecopharmacovigilance. [10]
18. Jun 2021 · Paper 1 · Q8 · 5 marksa) What is pharmacovigilance and what is its importance? [5] b) Discuss various methods of causality assessment with their advantages and limitations. [5]
19. Jun 2021 · Paper 1 · Q9 · 5 marksa) Off-label use of drugs with examples. [5] b) Applications of biotechnology in medicine. [5]
20. Jun 2021 · Paper 4 · Q8 · 5 marksa) Describe the various sources and consequences of pharmaceuticals in environment. [5] b) Vulnerable population in clinical trials. [5]
21. Dec 2020 · Paper 1 · Q8a) Gender based differences in drug therapy. b) Environmental Pharmacology. 5 +5
22. Dec 2020 · Paper 1 · Q9 · 5+5 marksa) Spurious drugs. b) Designer drugs. 5+5
23. Jun 2020 · Paper 1 · Q2 · 2+4+4 marksWhat is Pharmacovigilance? Outline National & International initiatives taken for Pharmacovigilance. Discuss methods of causality assessment and their role in Pharmacovigilance. 2+4+4
24. Dec 2016 · Paper 4 · Q3 · 5+5 marksa) Methods for causality assessment. b) Timelines for reporting of serious adverse events in clinical trials. 5+5
25. Dec 2015 · Paper 4 · Q1 · 5+5 marksa) Enumerate patient safety and pharmacovigilance. b) Pharmacovigilance programme of India(PVPI). 5+5
26. Dec 2014 · Paper 4 · Q6 · 2+4+4 marksDiscuss the ethical principles to be followed while conducting clinical trials. According to the recent guidelines, what are the roles and responsibilities of 'Institutional Ethics Committee' (IEC) with regard to payment of compensation in the event of an adverse drug reactions occurring during clinical trial?
27. Dec 2013 · Paper 1 · Q4 · 3+3+4 marksDefine pharmacoepidemiology. Discuss the various methods required to conduct Pharmacoepidemiological study. Enumerate the usefulness of the outcomes of such studies.
28. Dec 2013 · Paper 2 · Q1 · 2+4+4 marksEnumerate the drugs used for treatment of schizophrenia. Discuss the adverse drug reactions of the typical antipsychotic. Enumerate the advantages for the use of atypical antipsychotic agents.
29. Dec 2013 · Paper 2 · Q7 · 2+4+4 marksEnumerate the various types of oral contraceptive pills. Describe the non-contraceptive uses of these drugs. Discuss briefly the adverse drug reactions of these hormonal pills.
30. Dec 2013 · Paper 3 · Q8 · (2+2)+(2+2+2) marksDescribe Phase IV clinical trial and 'post marketing surveillance'? What are the prerequisites, objectives and methodology for conducting post marketing surveillance for a new drug?
31. Dec 2012 · Paper 1 · Q1 · 2+6+2 marksDescribe briefly the Pharmacovigilance program of India. Discuss the strategies that may be adopted to establish an Adverse Drug Reaction Monitoring (ADRM) cell in your institute. Highlight the objectives of the ADRM cell.
32. Dec 2011 · Paper 3 · Q5 · 1+5+4 marksDefine pharmacovigilance. Discuss the scope and methods of 1+5+4 conducting pharmacovigilance in a tertiary health care facility. Mention methods of casualty assessment.

Principles of Clinical Toxicology

No chapter link yet1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Dec 2011

1. Dec 2011 · Paper 2 · Q3 · 5+3+2 marksMention different opioid receptors and effects mediated through 5+3+2 them. Give features of morphine poisoning and principles of drug used for its management.

Autonomic Neurotransmission

PharmaNotes Pro chapter2 questions · asked in 2 sessions · latest Dec 2012

1. Dec 2012 · Paper 4 · Q3 · 3+3+4 marksEnumerate various cholinergic receptors. Discuss briefly the distribution of cholinergic receptors in the body and physiological actions of muscarinic receptors.
2. Dec 2011 · Paper 4 · Q6 · 4+6 marksDescribe the sequence of events involved in neuro- 4+6 transmission. Give suitable examples of drugs acting at each of these steps.

Neurotransmission: ANS and Somatic Motor Nervous Systems

No chapter link yet3 questions · asked in 3 sessions · latest Jun 2025

1. Jun 2025 · Paper 2 · Q10 · 10 marksUse and current recommendations of multiple micronutrients in pregnancy and lactation. [10]
2. Dec 2013 · Paper 2 · Q3 · 3+2+5 marksEnumerate the different types of general anaesthetic agents giving suitable examples. Explain the terms 'Induction anaesthesia' and 'maintainance of anaesthesia'. Describe briefly dissociative anaesthesia.
3. Dec 2011 · Paper 4 · Q10 · 6+2+2 marksDiscuss the factors involved in drug disposition during 6+2+2 pregnancy. Mention drugs contraindicated in pregnancy and the drugs that can be given in pregnancy. PossESSroN/usE oFCELL pHoNES ryi;r;,:r:rf,_t:ff;^fflIlicADcErs rs Nor pERMrrrED rNsrDE

Anticholinesterase Inhibitors and Reactivators

No chapter link yet1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Oct 2023

1. Oct 2023 · Paper 4 · Q9 · 5+5 marksClassify neuromuscular blockers. Compare the neuromuscular blocker reversal mechanism of sugammadex with that of neostigmine. [5+5]

NMJ, Autonomic Ganglia; Nicotine, Muscle Relaxants, Spasmolytics

No chapter link yet1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Oct 2024

1. Oct 2024 · Paper 2 · Q8 · 5 marksa) Direct thrombin inhibitors. [5] b) Centrally acting muscle relaxants. [5]

Third-Generation Beta-Blockers

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Dec 2016

1. Dec 2016 · Paper 3 · Q3 · 5+5 marksa) Third generation β-blockers. b) Their role in therapy of cardiac disorders. 5+5

Adrenergic Agonists and Antagonists

No chapter link yet7 questions · asked in 7 sessions · latest Oct 2024

1. Oct 2024 · Paper 2 · Q2 · 5+5 marksEnumerate third generation beta blockers. Discuss their role in clinical practice. [5+5]
2. Apr 2023 · Paper 2 · Q3 · 2+4+4 marksEnumerate beta blockers. Discuss their cardiovascular and non cardiovascular uses. [2+4+4]
3. Jun 2022 · Paper 2 · Q4 · 3+(2+3+2) marksWrite classification of adrenergic blockers. Discuss pharmacological actions, uses and adverse effects of beta blockers. [3+(2+3+2)]
4. Dec 2014 · Paper 2 · Q8 · 2+2+3+3 marksEnumerate drugs used in the treatment of congestive heart failure. What are the limitations of these agents? Discuss the pharmacological basis for the use of beta blockers in CHF. How would you monitor beta blocker therapy in CHF?
5. Dec 2013 · Paper 3 · Q7 · 2+4+4 marksDiscuss the pathophysiology of angina pectoralis. Discuss the pharmacological basis of undesirable effects of the use of beta-blockers in angina pectoralis. Describe briefly the metabolic modulator (pFOX inhibitors) useful in treatment of angina pectoralis.
6. Dec 2012 · Paper 2 · Q1 · 2+3+5 marksList the drugs commonly used for the treatment of Congestive Heart Failure (CHF). What are the limitations of the present therapy advocated for CHF? Give the rationale for the use of beta-blockers in CHF.
7. Dec 2011 · Paper 2 · Q1 · 4+6 marksDiscuss the therapeutic status and role of beta-blockers in the 4+6 treatment of heart failure.

5-HT (Serotonin) Receptors

PharmaNotes Pro chapter2 questions · asked in 2 sessions · latest Dec 2014

1. Dec 2014 · Paper 4 · Q1 · 3+(3+4) marksEnumerate various serotonergic receptors. Discuss clinical uses of serotonin agonists and antagonists giving suitable examples.
2. Dec 2013 · Paper 4 · Q5 · 3+3+4 marksEnumerate various serotonergic receptors. Discuss uses of serotonin agonists and antagonists giving suitable examples.

5-HT (Serotonin) and Dopamine

No chapter link yet7 questions · asked in 6 sessions · latest Oct 2023

1. Oct 2023 · Paper 2 · Q5 · 5+5 marksEnumerate drugs used in the treatment of Parkinson's disease. Discuss therapeutic status of dopamine receptor agonists. [5+5]
2. Apr 2023 · Paper 2 · Q6 · 5 marksBriefly discuss the following: a) Dopamine receptor agonists in Parkinson's disease. [5] b) Metronomic chemotherapy. [5]
3. Dec 2022 · Paper 2 · Q4 · (3+3)+4 marksGive an account of pharmacotherapy of acute attack and prophylaxis of migraine. Discuss the recent advances in the treatment of migraine. [(3+3)+4]
4. Jun 2021 · Paper 2 · Q1 · 10 marksDiscuss the pharmacological approaches and therapeutic implications of modulation of dopaminergic transmission. [10]
5. Jun 2021 · Paper 2 · Q2 · 10 marksDiscuss the pathophysiology and drug therapy of migraine. [10]
6. Dec 2014 · Paper 2 · Q7 · 2+(3+5) marksEnumerate the drugs useful in the treatment of migraine. Discuss the pathophysiology and drug treatment of migraine.
7. Dec 2011 · Paper 4 · Q2 · 3+3+4 marksDescribe the physiological and biochemical aspects of serotonin receptors. Discuss the drugs interacting at these 3+3+4 receptors and their therapeutic uses.

NMDA Receptor Antagonists & Clinical Applications

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest May 2024

1. May 2024 · Paper 2 · Q4 · 5+3+2 marksDescribe the types of glutamate receptors. Discuss the drugs acting on these receptors with their therapeutic potential. [5+3+2]

Neurotransmission in the CNS

No chapter link yet2 questions · asked in 2 sessions · latest Oct 2023

1. Oct 2023 · Paper 3 · Q5 · 5+5 marksEnumerate the criteria for a substance to be considered as a central neurotransmitter. Discuss the steps involved in the synthesis, store, release and metabolism of acetylcholine. [5+5]
2. Dec 2014 · Paper 1 · Q7 · 3+7 marksEnumerate tachykinins. Discuss their pathophysiological role and pharmacological implications.

Newer Antidepressants

PharmaNotes Pro chapter3 questions · asked in 3 sessions · latest Dec 2022

1. Dec 2022 · Paper 4 · Q5 · 5+5 marksDiscuss the novel targets and recent advances in the management of depression. [5+5]
2. Dec 2016 · Paper 2 · Q1 · 2+2+2 marksa) Mention the various classes of anti-depressant drugs along with examples for each class. b) Enumerate the mechanism(s) of actions, uses and side effects of TCAs. 4+(2+2+2)
3. Dec 2012 · Paper 2 · Q9 · 4+6 marksClassify drugs used in affective disorders. Write mechanisms of action, side effects and uses of tricyclic anti-depressants.

Depression and Anxiety Disorders

No chapter link yet6 questions · asked in 6 sessions · latest Jun 2025

1. Jun 2025 · Paper 2 · Q7 · 6+4 marksDescribe pharmacotherapy of major depressive disorders. What are the newer targets and recently approved antidepressant drugs? [6+4]
2. Apr 2023 · Paper 2 · Q2 · 5 marksBriefly discuss the following: a) Non-antidepressant uses of anti depressants. [5] b) Selective estrogen receptor downregulator. [5]
3. Dec 2021 · Paper 2 · Q2 · 2+6+2 marksDiscuss the evolution of antidepressant drugs. Classify them writing their therapeutic status and adverse effects. Write the holistic approach to treating a patient of depression. [2+6+2]
4. Jun 2020 · Paper 2 · Q1 · 4+6 marksEnumerate the different classes of antidepressant drugs with examples. Discuss the mechanism of action, uses and side effects of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. 4+6
5. Dec 2015 · Paper 3 · Q7 · 3+4+3 marksUses, advantages and adverse effects of Selective Serotonin Re- uptake inhibitor (SSRIs). 3+4+3
6. Dec 2012 · Paper 3 · Q2 · 3+4+3 marksDiscuss the uses, advantages and adverse effects of Selective Serotonin Re-uptake Inhibitors (SSRIs).

Atypical Antipsychotics

PharmaNotes Pro chapter2 questions · asked in 2 sessions · latest Jun 2025

1. Jun 2025 · Paper 2 · Q5 · 10 marksDescribe briefly the drugs used for Autistic Spectrum Disorders (ASD). [10]
2. May 2024 · Paper 4 · Q3 · 10 marksDiscuss the recent advances for the treatment of psychosis. [10]

Pharmacotherapy of Psychosis and Mania

No chapter link yet3 questions · asked in 3 sessions · latest Oct 2024

1. Oct 2024 · Paper 2 · Q1 · 3+3+4 marksDescribe pathophysiology of Schizophrenia. Write the pharmacotherapy of Schizophrenia. Discuss therapeutic status of atypical antipsychotics. [3+3+4]
2. Oct 2023 · Paper 4 · Q10 · 5 marksa) Non peak insulin formulations. [5] b) Atypical antipsychotics. [5]
3. Dec 2016 · Paper 3 · Q4 · 3+3+2 marksa) Enumerate atypical antipsychotics. b) Advantages, uses and adverse effects of Olanzapine. 2+(3+3+2)

GABA Modulators in Epilepsy

PharmaNotes Pro chapter3 questions · asked in 3 sessions · latest Jun 2021

1. Jun 2021 · Paper 2 · Q9 · 10 marksDiscuss the therapeutic implications of drugs acting on the benzodiazepine receptors. [10]
2. Dec 2016 · Paper 3 · Q9 · 2+3+3 marksMechanism of action, therapeutic uses, adverse effects and precautions regarding the use of sodium valproate. 2+3+3+2
3. Dec 2013 · Paper 4 · Q1 · 3+3+4 marksWrite briefly about GABA receptor. Enumerate the drugs acting on them. Discuss the clinical uses of these agents.

Newer Antiepileptic Drugs & GABA Modulators

PharmaNotes Pro chapter3 questions · asked in 3 sessions · latest Dec 2025

1. Dec 2025 · Paper 2 · Q8 · 2+(3+3+2) marksEnumerate newer anti-seizure medications. Describe their mechanism of action, uses and adverse effects. [2+(3+3+2)]
2. Jun 2022 · Paper 2 · Q1 · 2+3+3+2 marksDiscuss the pathophysiological basis of classifying drugs for epilepsy. Write the therapeutic status and adverse effects of anti-epileptic agents. Describe anti-epileptogenesis. [2+3+3+2]
3. Dec 2012 · Paper 3 · Q3 · 2+4+(2+2) marksEnumerate the newer anti-epileptic agents. What are their therapeutic statuses? Discuss briefly the mechanism of action and adverse effect of these agents.

Pharmacotherapy of the Epilepsies

No chapter link yet1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Dec 2022

1. Dec 2022 · Paper 2 · Q8 · 3+(3+2)+2 marksEnumerate the drugs used for the treatment of epilepsy. Discuss the therapeutic status and adverse effects of levetiracetam. Describe the management of status epilepticus. [3+(3+2)+2]

Antiparkinsonian Drugs

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Dec 2016

1. Dec 2016 · Paper 3 · Q6 · 5+5 marksEtiopathogenesis and management of ‘On-Off’ phenomenon due to Levodopa. 5+5

CNS Degenerative Disorders

No chapter link yet8 questions · asked in 8 sessions · latest Jun 2025

1. Jun 2025 · Paper 2 · Q4 · 10 marksEnumerate the drugs for the therapy for Alzheimer's disease. Make a comparative efficacy and safety evaluation as per the Standard Treatment Guidelines (STG). [10]
2. Jun 2022 · Paper 2 · Q7 · 5+5 marksClassify drugs used in dementia. Describe treatment options and promising targets of Alzheimer's disease. [5+5]
3. Dec 2021 · Paper 2 · Q1 · 2+3+3+1+1 marksDiscuss the pathophysiological basis of classifying drugs for Parkinsonism. Write the therapeutic status and adverse effects of anti-Parkinsonian agents. Describe on-off phenomenon and holiday period in anti-parkinsonian therapy. [2+3+3+1+1]
4. Jun 2021 · Paper 4 · Q1 · 10 marksDiscuss the advances in the management of Alzheimer's disease. [10]
5. Dec 2015 · Paper 3 · Q4 · 3+4+3 marksEtiopathogenesis, management and recent advances for treatment of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). 3+4+3
6. Dec 2014 · Paper 3 · Q5 · 3+4+3 marksDiscuss the etiopathogenesis, management and recent advances for treatment of Parkinson disease.
7. Dec 2013 · Paper 3 · Q5 · 3+3+4 marksDiscuss the etiopathogenesis, management and recent advances for treatment of Alzheimer's disease.
8. Dec 2011 · Paper 2 · Q10 · 3+3+4 marksDiscuss briefly the basic etiopathologies of Alzheimer's 3+3+4 disease. What is the role of oxidative stress? Mention the current approaches for management of Alzheimer's disease. oF CELL PHoNES oyyr"t#rf,i:ff#flI,:rcADcErs rs Nor PERMTTTED INSIDE FINAL EXAM NATIONAL BOARD OF EXAMINATIONS DEGEMBER 2011 ffi PHARMA IDII1I34IIII Time :3 hours Max. Marks : 100 Attempt all questions in order. Each question carries 10 marks

Hypnotics and Sedatives

No chapter link yet2 questions · asked in 2 sessions · latest May 2024

1. May 2024 · Paper 2 · Q7 · 5+5 marksDiscuss neurosteroids and their therapeutic implications. [5+5]
2. Jun 2020 · Paper 2 · Q2 · 5+5 marksa) Neurosteroids as potential drug targets. b) Pharmacotherapy of pulmonary arterial hypertension. 5+5

Morphine and Opioid Analgesics

PharmaNotes Pro chapter2 questions · asked in 1 session · latest Dec 2013

1. Dec 2013 · Paper 2 · Q6 · 3+4+3 marksWhat do you understand by the term 'patient controlled analgesia'? Give an account of the drugs used in this condition. Discuss the benefits of this method of analgesia.
2. Dec 2013 · Paper 4 · Q3 · 3+3+4 marksDefine nociception. Describe the chemical mediators involved in nociceptive pathway. Give a description of the drugs modulating them.

Opioid Analgesics

No chapter link yet7 questions · asked in 7 sessions · latest Dec 2022

1. Dec 2022 · Paper 2 · Q6 · 2+(4+4) marksWhat is drug dependence? Outline the pharmacological modalities for the management of opioid and smoking addictions. [2+(4+4)]
2. Dec 2021 · Paper 2 · Q5 · 2+5+3 marksClassify opioid agonists and antagonists. Discuss the role of morphine in drug therapy and drug abuse. What measures are available to prevent misuse of morphine in India. [2+5+3]
3. Jun 2020 · Paper 2 · Q8 · 5+5 marksa) Give the rationale and management of precipitation of acute attack of gout with allopurinol. b) What are the side effects with morphine therapy? Which drugs help in coping with these side effects? 5+5
4. Dec 2016 · Paper 3 · Q8 · 2+3 marksa) Define co-analgesics and give suitable examples. b) WHO guidelines for the treatment of chronic pain. (2+3)+5
5. Dec 2015 · Paper 4 · Q8 · 5+5 marksa) Novel analgesic targets for treatment of pain. b) Neuronal nicotinic receptors as targets for novel analgesics. 5+5
6. Dec 2014 · Paper 2 · Q3 · 1+3+(3+3) marksWhat are the different types of opioid receptors? Discuss their distribution and actions mediated through these receptors. Enumerate the uses and contraindications for the use of morphine.
7. Dec 2012 · Paper 3 · Q4 · 2+(2+2+4) marksWhat are endogenous opioids (give suitable examples)? Discuss briefly: a) Their distribution b) Role and c) Methods for their identification

General Anaesthetics

PharmaNotes Pro chapter2 questions · asked in 2 sessions · latest Oct 2023

1. Oct 2023 · Paper 1 · Q8 · 10 marksDiscuss the impact of blood solubility of anaeshetic gases on the onset, duration and extent of their action with suitable examples. [10]
2. Jun 2021 · Paper 2 · Q4 · 5+5 marksDiscuss the therapeutic status of conventional and newer intravenous agents for general anaesthesia. [5+5]

General Anesthetics and Therapeutic Gases

No chapter link yet2 questions · asked in 2 sessions · latest Oct 2024

1. Oct 2024 · Paper 2 · Q6 · 2+(3+2+3) marksClassify general anesthetic drugs. Describe briefly clinical uses, mechanism of action and adverse effects of Thiopental sodium. [2+(3+2+3)]
2. Dec 2015 · Paper 3 · Q9 · 2+2+2 marksa) Classify general anesthetic agents. b) Mechanism of action, therapeutic uses, adverse effects and precautions of propofol. 2+(2+2+2+2)

Local Anesthetics

No chapter link yet1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Dec 2014

1. Dec 2014 · Paper 2 · Q2 · 2+4+4 marksEnumerate the different groups of local anaesthetic agents. Discuss briefly the mechanism of action of local anaesthetics. What are the routes of administration and uses of lignocaine?

Cannabinoids

No chapter link yet1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Jun 2022

1. Jun 2022 · Paper 4 · Q8 · 10 marksDiscuss the therapeutic potential and current status of cannabinoids. [10]

Drug Use Disorders and Addiction

No chapter link yet10 questions · asked in 8 sessions · latest Jun 2025

1. Jun 2025 · Paper 1 · Q7 · 6+4 marksBriefly explain drug addiction, drug dependence and drug abuse. Write a brief note on their management. [6+4]
2. Jun 2025 · Paper 4 · Q10 · 5 marksa) Nonadditive drugs of abuse. [5] b) Drugs that bind to transporters of biogenic amines. [5]
3. May 2024 · Paper 4 · Q9 · 4+3+3 marksGive an account on the menace of drug abuse in sports. What measures have been put in place to counter the problem? Discuss therapeutic use exemption with suitable examples in sports. [4+3+3]
4. Oct 2023 · Paper 1 · Q2 · 10 marksDescribe the molecular mechanisms and clinical implications of the phenomena of tolerance. [10]
5. Jun 2021 · Paper 4 · Q3 · 7+3 marksDiscuss drug abuse in sports and role of Therapeutic Use Exempt Committee (TUEC). [7+3]
6. Dec 2015 · Paper 2 · Q9 · 5+5 marksa) Molecular adaptations responsible for opiate withdrawal. b) Role of various agents used in opiate withdrawal. 5+5
7. Dec 2014 · Paper 1 · Q3 · 2+6+2 marksWhat do you understand by the terms 'tolerance' and 'drug resistance'? Discuss briefly the different types of tolerance and their clinical implications in therapeutics. Give suitable examples to illustrate your answer.
8. Dec 2013 · Paper 3 · Q3 · 3+3+4 marksDefine drug dependence. Discuss the dynamics of drug dependence. What are the principles in treatment of drug dependence?
9. Dec 2011 · Paper 2 · Q4 · 6+4 marksDiscuss the Pharmacological approaches for treatment of 6+4 Tobacco dependence and withdrawal.
10. Dec 2011 · Paper 3 · Q4 · 1+3+3 marksDefine drug dependence. Discuss the dynamics of drug 1+3+3+3 dependence. What are the principles employed for the .l treatment of drug dependence. Give suitable examples

High-Ceiling (Loop) Diuretics

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Dec 2014

1. Dec 2014 · Paper 2 · Q5 · 3+(2+3+2) marksEnumerate two diuretics each from high efficacy, moderate efficacy and weak efficacy diuretics. Discuss the mechanism of action, therapeutic uses and contraindications for the use of mannitol.

Drugs Affecting Renal Excretory Function (Diuretics)

No chapter link yet2 questions · asked in 2 sessions · latest Dec 2025

1. Dec 2025 · Paper 2 · Q7 · 2+(4+4) marksWhat are mitochondrial disruptors? Describe the agents with beneficial and harmful effects on mitochondrial function. [2+(4+4)]
2. Dec 2011 · Paper 3 · Q10 · 4+6 marksWhat do you understand by the term diuretic resistance? 4+6 Discuss briefly the methods that can be employed to overcome the above resistance. Give suitable examples to illustrate your answers' ***** POSSESSION/USE OF CELL PHONES OR ANY SACH ELECTRONIC GADGETS IS NOT PERMITTED INSIDE THE EXAMINATION HALL FINAL EXAM NATIONAL BOARD OF EXAMINATIONS DECEMBER 2011 PHARMACOLOGY PAPER. IV PHARMA/DI11I34IIV Time : 3 hours Max. Marks : 100 Attempt alt questions in order. Each question carries 10 marks

Renin and Angiotensin

No chapter link yet11 questions · asked in 9 sessions · latest Dec 2025

1. Dec 2025 · Paper 2 · Q3 · 4+(3+3) marksEnumerate the drugs used for treatment of hypertension. Discuss the mechanism of action & adverse effects of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors. [4+(3+3)]
2. May 2024 · Paper 3 · Q10 · 10 marksDiscuss the methods for pre-clinical evaluation of compounds with a potential effect on learning and memory. [10]
3. Apr 2023 · Paper 2 · Q9 · 6+4 marksDiscuss the pharmacotherapy of hypertension. Ouline the therapeutic status of enalapril in its treatment. [6+4]
4. Dec 2021 · Paper 2 · Q3 · 7+3 marksDiscuss pharmacological modulation of renin angiotensin system. Write newer approaches to treatment of cardiovascular diseases emerging from the same. [7+3]
5. Dec 2021 · Paper 4 · Q5 · 6+4 marksDiscuss the different vaccines available for COVID-19 infection. Discuss the significant learning in drug development and discovery, highlighted, in development of these vaccines. [6+4]
6. Jun 2020 · Paper 2 · Q3 · 5+5 marksEnumerate the drugs used for heart failure. Discuss the role of angiotensin receptor neprilysin inhibitors (ARNI) in the treatment of heart failure. 5+5
7. Dec 2016 · Paper 2 · Q9 · 5+5 marksa) Pharmacotherapy of CHF. b) Role of Angiotensin Receptor Neprilysin Inhibitor (ARNI) in CHF. 5+5
8. Dec 2016 · Paper 3 · Q7 · 3+3 marksa) Classify drugs used for the treatment of ischemic heart disease (IHD). b) Pharmacological basis and advantages of the use of enalapril in IHD. 4+(3+3)
9. Dec 2013 · Paper 2 · Q4 · 3+3+4 marksEnumerate the drugs modulating Renin-Angiotensin Aldosterone system (RAAS). Describe the pharmacological basis and rationale for the use of direct rennin inhibitors in hypertension.
10. Dec 2012 · Paper 3 · Q6 · 10 marksWhat is the rationale for combining angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors with angiotensin receptor blockers? Explain your answer with five reasons.
11. Dec 2011 · Paper 3 · Q1 · 4+6 marksDescribe physiological control of blood pressure. Discuss 4+6 agents which act by modulating the renin-angiotensin- aldosterone system in the body.

Treatment of Ischemic Heart Disease

No chapter link yet1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Oct 2024

1. Oct 2024 · Paper 2 · Q7 · 3+4+3 marksDescribe pathophysiology of stable angina. Write the pharmacotherapy of stable angina. Discuss the therapeutic objectives of each drug used in its treatment. [3+4+3]

Antihypertensives

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Oct 2023

1. Oct 2023 · Paper 2 · Q1 · 5+5 marksDescribe various mechanisms modulating arteriolar tone. Discuss the therapeutic potential of the drugs modifying arterial tone. [5+5]

Calcium Channel Blockers

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Dec 2013

1. Dec 2013 · Paper 4 · Q9 · 2+4+4 marksDiscuss various types of calcium channels. Enumerate the drugs modulating them. Discuss the pharmacological implications of these drugs.

Treatment of Hypertension

No chapter link yet1 question · asked in 1 session · latest May 2024

1. May 2024 · Paper 4 · Q1 · 10 marksDiscuss the recent guidelines for management of hypertension. [10]

Pharmacotherapy of Heart Failure

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Jun 2021

1. Jun 2021 · Paper 4 · Q2 · 5 marksa) Intellectual property rights in drug development. [5] b) Neprilysin inhibitors. [5]

Therapy of Heart Failure

No chapter link yet4 questions · asked in 4 sessions · latest Jun 2025

1. Jun 2025 · Paper 2 · Q9 · 10 marksBriefly discuss the pharmacotherapy of congestive heart failure. [10]
2. Dec 2022 · Paper 2 · Q2 · 5+5 marksBriefly describe the pharmacotherapy of acute congestive heart failure. Discuss the therapeutic status of SGLT2 inhibitors in the management of heart failure. [5+5]
3. Jun 2021 · Paper 2 · Q10 · 10 marksDiscuss the recent advances in the pharmacotherapy in Congestive Heart failure. [10]
4. Dec 2013 · Paper 4 · Q10 · 5+5 marksExplain the mechanism of cardiac glycosides as arrhythmogenic and anti-arrhythmics agents. Discuss the management of arrhythmias caused by them.

Antiarrhythmic Drugs and the Vaughan-Williams Classification

PharmaNotes Pro chapter2 questions · asked in 2 sessions · latest Jun 2021

1. Jun 2021 · Paper 3 · Q1 · 10 marksDiscuss the methods for preclinical evaluation of antiarrhythmic activity of a new molecule? [10]
2. Dec 2013 · Paper 2 · Q2 · 2+2+6 marksDescribe the term supraventricular tachycardias. Enumerate the drugs useful in the treatment of supraventricular tachycardias. Discuss briefly the management of paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardias.

Antiarrhythmic Drugs

No chapter link yet3 questions · asked in 3 sessions · latest Jun 2022

1. Jun 2022 · Paper 2 · Q2 · 5+5 marksClassify anti-arrhythmic drugs. Describe pharmacological basis for use of drug therapy for paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia (PSVT). [5+5]
2. Dec 2021 · Paper 1 · Q7 · 2+3+5 marksDefine a drug formulation. Classify drug formulations. Discuss the role of various components of a drug formulation in drug therapy. [2+3+5]
3. Dec 2015 · Paper 3 · Q6 · 2+5 marksa) Pathopysiology and management of supra-ventricular tachycardia. b) Limitations of amiodarone as antiarrhythmic agent. (2+5)+3

Treatment of Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension

No chapter link yet5 questions · asked in 5 sessions · latest Jun 2022

1. Jun 2022 · Paper 2 · Q8 · 10 marksDrug therapy used in the management of pulmonary hypertension. [10]
2. Dec 2015 · Paper 4 · Q2 · 2+2+2 marksMention different endothelin receptors, drug acting on endothelin receptor, their therapeutic use, adverse effect and precautions. 2+2+2+2+2
3. Dec 2014 · Paper 2 · Q6 · 2+4+(2+2) marksWhat is Nitric Oxide (NO)? Discuss the effects of NO on vascular system. Discuss briefly the potential role and toxicity profile of NO.
4. Dec 2013 · Paper 4 · Q2 · 2+2+3+3 marksDefine endothelins. Name the receptors on which they act. Describe the inhibitors of endothelin system. Discuss briefly the physiological and pathological role of endothelin.
5. Dec 2011 · Paper 4 · Q3 · 5+5 marksDiscuss the role of nitric oxide (NO) in the pathophysiology of 5+5 various diseases. Describe various NO modulators.

Oral Anticoagulants — NOACs, Antiplatelets & Fibrinolytics

PharmaNotes Pro chapter3 questions · asked in 3 sessions · latest May 2024

1. May 2024 · Paper 4 · Q10 · 10 marksDiscuss the various novel anti-coagulant agents. [10]
2. Dec 2021 · Paper 2 · Q9 · 6+4 marksDiscuss the pharmacological basis of prescribing anti-platelet drugs in a patient of cardiovascular disese. Discuss its impact and evidence on patient outcomes. [6+4]
3. Jun 2021 · Paper 2 · Q5 · 5+5 marksDescribe the various ways by which drugs can modulate platelet functions and their implications in therapeutics. [5+5]

Blood Coagulation: Anticoagulant, Fibrinolytic, Antiplatelet

No chapter link yet8 questions · asked in 7 sessions · latest Oct 2023

1. Oct 2023 · Paper 2 · Q2 · 5+2+2+1 marksEnumerate anti-platelet drugs. Discuss the mechanism of action, therapeutic uses and adverse effects of clopidogrel. [5+2+2+1]
2. Dec 2021 · Paper 4 · Q8 · 10 marksDiscuss briefly about newer anticoagulants. What are their advantages and disadvantages compared to conventional anticoagulants? [10]
3. Jun 2020 · Paper 2 · Q7 · 5+5 marksa) Clinical applications of low dose aspirin. b) Fibrinolytics. 5+5
4. Dec 2014 · Paper 2 · Q1 · 1+2+(2+5) marksWhat are 'Low Molecular Weight Heparins' (LMWHs)? How are they different from regular heparin preparations? Discuss the advantages and therapeutic uses of LMWHs.
5. Dec 2014 · Paper 2 · Q10 · 4+2+4 marksDescribe briefly the physiology of blood coagulation and fibrinolysis. Enumerate fibrinolytic (thrombolytic) agents. Discuss briefly the clinical uses of fibrinolytic agents.
6. Dec 2013 · Paper 2 · Q5 · 4+6 marksDiscuss the targets identified for inhibiting the activity of platelets and list the drugs are acting on these targets. Describe the management of aspirin and clopidogrel resistance.
7. Dec 2012 · Paper 2 · Q6 · 2+2+(3+3) marksWhat is low molecular weight heparin? How it is different from heparin? What are the uses and advantages of low molecular weight heparin?
8. Dec 2011 · Paper 4 · Q5 · 3+2+2 marksDiscuss in brief the physiology of blood coagulation and 3+2+2+3'' fibrinolysis. Describe the mechanism of action, adverse effects and therapeutic uses of low molecular weight heparin.

Statins & Pharmacotherapy of Dyslipidemia

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Dec 2011

1. Dec 2011 · Paper 4 · Q8 · 2+5+3 marksDescribe endogenous synthetic pathway of cholesterol 2+5+3 synthesis. What are the major serum lipoproteins and their pathological implications? Describe the pharmacological target.

Drug Therapy for Dyslipidemias

No chapter link yet5 questions · asked in 5 sessions · latest Dec 2022

1. Dec 2022 · Paper 2 · Q10 · 2+(2+1+1)+4 marksEnumerate hypolipidemic agents. Describe the mechanism of action, indications and adverse effects of PCSK-9 inhibitors. Discuss the role of using combination of hypolipidemic drugs in the management of familial hypercholesterolemia. [2+(2+1+1)+4]
2. Jun 2021 · Paper 2 · Q6 · 5+5 marksDiscuss the various classes of drugs for the treatment dyslipidemias. Describe the role of PCSK-9 inhibitors in the treatment of hyperlipidemia. [5+5]
3. Jun 2020 · Paper 2 · Q4 · 5+5 marksa) Discuss the emergency management of diabetic ketoacidosis. b) Discuss briefly newer hypolipidemic agents. 5+5
4. Dec 2015 · Paper 2 · Q4 · 2+2 marksa) Classify hypolipidemic agents. b) Mechanisms of action of statins. c) Enumerate adverse effects and precautions during use of statins. d) Pleotropic effects of statins. 2+2+(2+2)+2
5. Dec 2012 · Paper 2 · Q5 · 1+2+3+4 marksWhat are statins? What is the pleotropic effects associated with the use of statins? Discuss briefly the mechanism of action and the subsequent benefits of statins. Give suitable examples.

Immunomodulators

PharmaNotes Pro chapter3 questions · asked in 3 sessions · latest May 2024

1. May 2024 · Paper 4 · Q8 · 5+5 marksDiscuss the various treatment options and newer targets for management of multiple sclerosis. [5+5]
2. Apr 2023 · Paper 4 · Q9 · 5 marksa) Intellectual property rights in drug development. [5] b) Cytokines as drug target. [5]
3. Dec 2013 · Paper 3 · Q9 · 2+(2+3+3) marksWhat are cytokine inhibitors? Discuss briefly their mechanism of action, uses and adverse effects.

Immunosuppressants, Immunomodulation, and Tolerance

No chapter link yet6 questions · asked in 6 sessions · latest Dec 2025

1. Dec 2025 · Paper 2 · Q2 · 2+(3+3+2) marksEnumerate various small molecules used as immunosuppressants. Describe their mechanism of action, clinical uses and adverse effects. [2+(3+3+2)]
2. Dec 2022 · Paper 2 · Q9 · 5+5 marksDiscuss therapeutic guidelines for the management of rheumatic disease. Discuss the therapeutic status of the biological agents in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. [5+5]
3. Jun 2021 · Paper 2 · Q8 · 5 marksDiscuss the role of: a) Artemisinin derivatives in the treatment of malaria. [5] b) Biologicals in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. [5]
4. Dec 2016 · Paper 2 · Q7 · 2+2+2 marksa) Mechanism of action, uses and side effects of NSAIDs. b) Enumerate DMARDs used in rheumatoid arthritis. (2+2+2)+4
5. Dec 2015 · Paper 3 · Q2 · 3+2+3 marksMechanism of action, route of administration, adverse effect & precaution of infliximab use in inflammatory bowel disease. 3+2+3+2
6. Dec 2012 · Paper 3 · Q7 · 1+(2+2+3+2) marksWhat is infliximab? Discuss briefly its mechanism of action, route of administration, uses and adverse effects.

Immune Globulins and Vaccines

No chapter link yet5 questions · asked in 4 sessions · latest Dec 2025

1. Dec 2025 · Paper 4 · Q3 · 3+7 marksMention the different types of COVID vaccines. Describe the phases of clinical trials for vaccine development. [3+7]
2. Jun 2022 · Paper 4 · Q10 · 10 marksExplain about nano-vaccine and its advantages & limitations. [10]
3. Jun 2021 · Paper 3 · Q6 · 5 marksa) What are the different phases of a vaccine trial? [5] b) Elucidate the concept of emergency use authorization. [5]
4. Jun 2021 · Paper 4 · Q6 · 10 marksWrite the salient features and status of the vaccines for COVID-19. [10]
5. Jun 2020 · Paper 4 · Q10Status of malaria and dengue vaccines. 10 ************

Lipid-Derived Autacoids: Eicosanoids and PAF

No chapter link yet2 questions · asked in 2 sessions · latest Dec 2013

1. Dec 2013 · Paper 4 · Q7 · 2+4+4 marksEnlist various prostaglandins. Discuss their patho-physiological role and uses of these agents. Illustrate your answers giving suitable examples.
2. Dec 2012 · Paper 2 · Q7 · 3+2+5 marksEnumerate the biosynthetic products of arachidonic acid. What are eicosanoids? Discuss briefly the therapeutic uses of prostaglandins?

Inflammation, Fever, Pain, and Gout

No chapter link yet4 questions · asked in 3 sessions · latest Dec 2021

1. Dec 2021 · Paper 2 · Q4 · 6+4 marksDiscuss the role of Cyclooxygenase (COX) inhibitors in therapy of Osteoarthritis. What is the therapeutic status of COX II inhibitors in osteoarthritis? [6+4]
2. Dec 2015 · Paper 2 · Q2 · 3+3+4 marksa) Selective Cox-2 inhibitors. b) What are the advantages over non selective Cox inhibitors? c) Elaborate evidence of cardiovascular risk associated with Cox-II inhibitor. 3+3+4
3. Dec 2015 · Paper 2 · Q3 · 2+2+2 marksa) How low dose aspirin is useful in coronary artery disease? b) Mechanism of action, adverse effects and precautions while using aspirin. 4+(2+2+2)
4. Dec 2011 · Paper 2 · Q7 · 2+2+3 marksWhat are selective COX-2 inhibitors? Discuss briefly their 2+2+3+3 advantages over non-selective COX inhibitors. What are the evidences for the cardiovascular risks of selective COX-2 inhibitors? What was the basis of banning some COX-2 inhibitors?

H1 Antihistamines

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Dec 2015

1. Dec 2015 · Paper 4 · Q10 · 3+3+2 marksa) Enumerate various histaminic receptors. b) Clinical use of anti-histaminics, adverse effects and precautions. 2+(3+3+2) **********************

Histamine, Bradykinin, and Their Antagonists

No chapter link yet1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Dec 2011

1. Dec 2011 · Paper 1 · Q9 · 5+5 marksDiscuss the methods for evaluation of a potential anti-allergic 5+5 (antihistaminic) drug. Give both experimental animal and clinical steps.

Bronchial Asthma

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Dec 2022

1. Dec 2022 · Paper 4 · Q8 · 10 marksDiscuss the management of COPD as per recent GOLD guidelines. [10]

Phosphodiesterase Inhibitors

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Dec 2022

1. Dec 2022 · Paper 4 · Q10 · 10 marksDiscuss the recent advances in pharmacotherapy of errectile dysfunction. [10]

Pulmonary Pharmacology

No chapter link yet6 questions · asked in 5 sessions · latest May 2024

1. May 2024 · Paper 4 · Q4 · 5+5 marksDiscuss the novel targets in the treatment of bronchial asthma. Outline the management of bronchial asthma as per GINA guidelines? [5+5]
2. Apr 2023 · Paper 2 · Q7 · 3+4+3 marksEnumerate the drugs used in treatment of bronchial asthma. Describe the pharmacotherapy of acute exacerbation and chronic bronchial asthma. Discuss the status of cortocosteroids in bronchial asthma. [3+4+3]
3. Jun 2021 · Paper 2 · Q3 · 4+6 marksDiscuss the pathophysiology and treatment modalities in the management of bronchial asthma. [4+6]
4. Dec 2016 · Paper 2 · Q8 · 2+2+2 marksa) Classify drugs used in the treatment of bronchial asthma. b) Advantages, precautions and side effects of inhalational therapy in bronchial asthma. 4+(2+2+2)
5. Dec 2012 · Paper 2 · Q4 · 2+5+3 marksEnumerate the drugs used in the treatment of bronchial asthma. Describe mechanism of action and adverse effects of each drug groups.
6. Dec 2012 · Paper 3 · Q5 · 1+(3+3+3) marksList the corticosteroids that are used by the inhalational route. Discuss briefly: a) The advantages b) The disadvantages and c) Their therapeutic status in the management of bronchial asthma

Haematopoietic Growth Factors & Agents

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Dec 2011

1. Dec 2011 · Paper 2 · Q9 · 4+6 marksEnumerate clinically used haematopoetic growth factors. 4+6 Discuss their Pharmacology and adverse effects.

Hematopoietic Agents: Growth Factors, Minerals, Vitamins

No chapter link yet2 questions · asked in 2 sessions · latest Jun 2020

1. Jun 2020 · Paper 2 · Q10 · 5+5 marksDiscuss the role of hematopoietic growth factors in anti-cancer chemotherapy 5+5 ************
2. Dec 2014 · Paper 3 · Q6 · 2+4+4 marksDiscuss the physiological role, pharmacological function and clinical uses of vitamin A.

Hypothalamic & Pituitary Drugs

PharmaNotes Pro chapter2 questions · asked in 2 sessions · latest Jun 2025

1. Jun 2025 · Paper 4 · Q5 · 10 marksDiscuss treatment options and recent development for treatment of infertility. [10]
2. Dec 2012 · Paper 4 · Q2 · 5+5 marksDescribe the physiology of gonadotrophins secretion. Discuss the uses of gonadotrophins.

Hypothalamic-Pituitary Axis

No chapter link yet1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Dec 2011

1. Dec 2011 · Paper 4 · Q4 · 2+5+3 marksDescribe the physiology of gonadotropin secretion. Discuss 2+5+3 the diagnostic and therapeutic uses of gonadotropins. Enumerate various gonadotropin preparations.

Drug Therapy of Hypothyroidism

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Dec 2013

1. Dec 2013 · Paper 4 · Q8 · 3+3+4 marksDiscuss the thyroid hormone with special reference to: a) Synthesis, storage and release b) Physiological effects c) Clinical usage

Thyroid and Antithyroid Drugs

No chapter link yet1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Dec 2016

1. Dec 2016 · Paper 3 · Q5 · 4+6 marksa) Enumerate anti-thyroid drugs. b) Management of diabetic ketoacidosis. 4+6

Estrogens and Progestins

PharmaNotes Pro chapter2 questions · asked in 2 sessions · latest Oct 2024

1. Oct 2024 · Paper 2 · Q3 · 5 marksa) Selective progesterone receptor modulators. [5] b) Pro-fertility drugs. [5]
2. Dec 2013 · Paper 3 · Q2 · (2+2)+(3+3) marksDescribe the term 'selective progestin receptor modulators', giving examples. Describe their pharmacological profile and their applications in clinical practice.

Estrogens, Progestins, Female Reproductive Tract

No chapter link yet2 questions · asked in 2 sessions · latest May 2024

1. May 2024 · Paper 2 · Q10 · 3+3+4 marksEnumerate oral contraceptives. Describe the regimes for emergency contraception. Discuss the therapeutic status of centchroman as a contraceptive agent? [3+3+4]
2. Dec 2014 · Paper 3 · Q10 · 4+(3+3) marksDescribe the term 'selective estrogen receptor modulators', giving examples. Describe their pharmacological profile and their applications in clinical practice.

Pharmacotherapy of Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Dec 2025

1. Dec 2025 · Paper 2 · Q9 · 5+5 marksDescribe pharmacotherapy of benign hyperplasia of prostate. Discuss rationale of each drug given for its treatment. [5+5]

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone, Adrenal Steroids, Adrenal Cortex

No chapter link yet2 questions · asked in 2 sessions · latest Oct 2023

1. Oct 2023 · Paper 2 · Q7 · 5+5 marksExplain the mechanism of gene expression regulation by glucocorticoids. Discuss the rationale of their use in some cancers. [5+5]
2. Dec 2016 · Paper 2 · Q10 · 2+4 marksa) Mechanism of action and uses of corticosteroids. b) Side effects of long term corticosteroid therapy. (2+4)+4 **********************

Newer Oral Antidiabetics & SGLT2 Inhibitors

PharmaNotes Pro chapter3 questions · asked in 3 sessions · latest Dec 2025

1. Dec 2025 · Paper 4 · Q10 · 5+5 marksDescribe the current recommendations and recent advances in the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus. [5+5]
2. Dec 2021 · Paper 4 · Q10 · 6+4 marksDiscuss newer strategies for treatment of diabetes mellitus. What attributes would be desirable in a new drug for treatment of diabetes mellitus?[6+4]
3. Jun 2021 · Paper 4 · Q10 · 10 marksDiscuss the recent advances in the management of type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. [10]

Insulin Sensitizers

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Dec 2016

1. Dec 2016 · Paper 2 · Q4 · 3+2+3 marksa) Enumerate dual PPAR agonists. b) Mechanisms of action, advantages and therapeutic potential of dual PPAR agonists. 2+(3+2+3)

Endocrine Pancreas: Diabetes Mellitus

No chapter link yet14 questions · asked in 10 sessions · latest Oct 2024

1. Oct 2024 · Paper 2 · Q4 · 4+6 marksEnumerate the drugs used in treatment of diabetes mellitus. Discuss the management of diabetic ketoacidosis. [4+6]
2. Apr 2023 · Paper 2 · Q8 · 7+3 marksDescribe the strategies for the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Discuss the therapeutic status of metformin in the treatment of T2DM? [7+3]
3. Dec 2022 · Paper 2 · Q5 · 2+3+5 marksEnumerate newer insulins. Discuss newer insulin delivery systems? Briefly disuss the rationale of all the pharmacotherapeutic agents used in the management of diabetic ketoacidosis. [2+3+5]
4. Jun 2022 · Paper 2 · Q6 · 10 marksDiscuss pharmacotherapy of obesity. [10]
5. Dec 2021 · Paper 2 · Q7 · 3+3+4 marksDiscuss various types of insulin available and their role in treatment of diabetes mellitus. What pharmacologically relevant information should be given to a patient while prescribing insulin. [3+3+4]
6. Dec 2016 · Paper 2 · Q5 · 5+5 marksa) Enumerate the different preparations and advantages of newer insulins. b) Role of incretin based therapy for diabetes mellitus. 5+5
7. Dec 2015 · Paper 3 · Q3 · 3+2+2 marksMechanism of action, therapeutic uses, adverse effects and clinical status of sitagliptin in management of diabetes mellitus. 3+2+2+3
8. Dec 2015 · Paper 3 · Q8 · 3+2 marksa) Current approaches in the management of metabolic syndrome. b) Mechanism of action and adverse effects of metformin. 5+(3+2)
9. Dec 2013 · Paper 2 · Q8 · 3+4+3 marksDiscuss novel targets for drugs in the treatment of diabetes mellitus. Discuss the therapeutic benefits and limitations of inhibitor of dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4).
10. Dec 2013 · Paper 3 · Q1 · 3+(3+4) marksDiscuss the neuroendocrine basis of obesity. Describe the pharmacological management along with recent advances for management of obesity.
11. Dec 2012 · Paper 2 · Q3 · 2+2+6 marksWhat is diabetic ketoacidosis? List the drugs used in the treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis. Mention the methods to monitor the treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis.
12. Dec 2012 · Paper 4 · Q1 · 2+3+5 marksDiscuss insulin with special reference to its: a) Synthesis, storage & secretion b) Cellular actions c) Physiological effects
13. Dec 2011 · Paper 2 · Q2 · 5+5 marksDiscuss different insulin formulations. Write brieffy the current 5+5 status of development of non-injectable insulin preparations.
14. Dec 2011 · Paper 3 · Q3 · 3+3+4 marksDiscuss the neuro-endocrine basis, pharmacological 3+3+4 management along with the recent advances for the management of obesity.

Mineral Ion Homeostasis and Bone Turnover

No chapter link yet6 questions · asked in 6 sessions · latest Dec 2025

1. Dec 2025 · Paper 2 · Q5 · 2+2+2+4 marksDiscuss current status of Vitamin D with respect to mechanism of action, concentrations in human body, recommended daily allowance, and potential clinical uses. [2+2+2+4]
2. May 2024 · Paper 2 · Q8 · 3+3+4 marksOutline the calcium regulation mechanisms in the human body. Discuss the mechanism of action and rationale for the use of vitamin D in the treatment of osteoporosis. [3+3+4]
3. Oct 2023 · Paper 2 · Q4 · 5+5 marksDiscuss strategies for the treatment of osteoporosis. Write mechanism of action and adverse drug effects of denosumab. [5+5]
4. Dec 2015 · Paper 3 · Q1 · 2+4+4 marksPhysiological role, pharmacological function and clinical use of Vitamin-D. 2+4+4
5. Dec 2014 · Paper 3 · Q2 · 2+8 marksEnumerate the drugs useful in the treatment of osteoporosis. Discuss the current approaches in the management of post menopausal osteoporosis.
6. Dec 2011 · Paper 3 · Q6 · 4+6 marksDescribe the regulation of bone mineral homeostasis. Discuss 4+6 ,the drugs used in the treatment of osteoporosis.

Gastric Acidity, PUD, GERD

No chapter link yet5 questions · asked in 5 sessions · latest Dec 2025

1. Dec 2025 · Paper 2 · Q6 · 4+6 marksEnumerate the drugs used in peptic ulcer disease. Compare and contrast between potassium-competitive acid blockers versus proton pump inhibitors. [4+6]
2. Dec 2015 · Paper 2 · Q1 · 3+2 marksa) Drugs used in eradication of H.pylori infection. b) Adverse effects and precautions while using bismuth. 5+(3+2)
3. Dec 2014 · Paper 1 · Q6 · 6+4 marksDescribe the screening methods for a drug thought to be useful for treatment of peptic ulcer. Discuss the parameters used for grading the severity of peptic ulcer in the experimental set up.
4. Dec 2013 · Paper 3 · Q10 · 3+4+3 marksEnumerate the drugs used for gastro-esophageal reflux disease (GERD). Describe the pharmacological basis for their usage. Discuss briefly the recent advances for treatment of GERD.
5. Dec 2012 · Paper 2 · Q2 · 2+(2+3)+3 marksWhat is the role of H. pylori infection in peptic ulcer disease? List the drugs along with their adverse effects useful for the eradication of H. pylori infection. Discuss briefly the monitoring of the above therapy.

GI Motility, Emesis, Biliary, Pancreatic

No chapter link yet3 questions · asked in 2 sessions · latest Oct 2023

1. Oct 2023 · Paper 2 · Q3 · 5+5 marksWrite mechanistic classification of drugs used in the treatment of nausea and vomiting. Write pre and post chemotherapy protocols for managing high risk of emesis. [5+5]
2. Dec 2011 · Paper 2 · Q8 · 5+5 marksMention anti-emetic drugs acting on vomiting centre and 5+5 chemoreceptor trigger zone. Enumerate drugs used for chemotherapy induced vomiting, motion sickness and hyperemesis gravidarum.
3. Dec 2011 · Paper 3 · Q8 · 2+4+4 marksDefine irritable bowel syndrome. Discuss its pathophysiology 2+4+4 and management.

General Principles of Antimicrobial Therapy

PharmaNotes Pro chapter3 questions · asked in 3 sessions · latest Dec 2021

1. Dec 2021 · Paper 4 · Q3 · 3+7 marksEnumerate few infections causing concern to public health authorities in India. Discuss the approach and treatment strategies available for the same. [3+7]
2. Jun 2021 · Paper 2 · Q7 · 5+5 marksWrite briefly about anti-microbial agents used for the treatment of gram +ve infections. Discuss the management of nosocomial infections. [5+5]
3. Dec 2013 · Paper 2 · Q10 · 5+5 marksList the antimicrobial agents used for gram +ve infections. Discuss the management of nosocomial infections.

Mechanisms of Antimicrobial Resistance

PharmaNotes Pro chapter2 questions · asked in 2 sessions · latest Dec 2025

1. Dec 2025 · Paper 2 · Q1 · 5+5 marksWhat are the different mechanisms of bacterial resistance to antibiotics? Describe antibiotic stewardship program. [5+5]
2. Jun 2022 · Paper 2 · Q3 · 10 marksWrite about national and global prospective of anti-microbial resistance programme. [10]

Rationale for Antimicrobial Combinations

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Dec 2021

1. Dec 2021 · Paper 2 · Q10 · 10 marksDiscuss the pharmacological rationale for prescribing multi-drug therapy for treatment of some diseases. [10]

General Principles of Antimicrobial Therapy

No chapter link yet6 questions · asked in 6 sessions · latest Dec 2022

1. Dec 2022 · Paper 2 · Q1 · (4+4)+2 marksDescribe the mechanisms of antimicrobial resistance and strategies to combat it. Discuss the role of community in preventing antimicrobial resistance. [(4+4)+2]
2. Dec 2021 · Paper 4 · Q2 · 10 marksDiscuss the PAN-INDIA approach to reduce antibiotic resistance in clinical use. [10]
3. Jun 2021 · Paper 4 · Q7 · 5 marksa) Quorum sensing. [5] b) Antimicrobial stewardship. [5]
4. Jun 2020 · Paper 4 · Q6What are the approaches to reduce antibiotic resistance in clinical use? 10
5. Dec 2014 · Paper 3 · Q1 · 2+4+4 marksEnumerate anti-malarial drugs based on their clinical usefulness. Discuss the chemoprophylaxis for a patient suffering from: a) Chloroquine sensitive infection b) Chloroquine resistant infection
6. Dec 2012 · Paper 3 · Q10 · 3+3+4 marksEnumerate the drugs used in the chemoprophylaxis of malaria. Describe their mechanism of action. Mention the dosage schedules of two of these agents.

DNA Disruptors: Sulfonamides, Quinolones, Nitroimidazoles

No chapter link yet3 questions · asked in 3 sessions · latest Dec 2014

1. Dec 2014 · Paper 3 · Q3 · 4+6 marksEnumerate the uses of fluoroquinolones. Discuss their therapeutic status in the management of pulmonary tuberculosis.
2. Dec 2013 · Paper 3 · Q6 · 3+3+4 marksEnumerate the drugs used for treatment of enteric fever. Describe their mechanism of action. Discuss the management of enteric fever.
3. Dec 2011 · Paper 3 · Q2 · 2+5+3 marksEnumerate the causative micro-organisms responsible for 2+5+3 urinary tract infections. Critically evaluate the drugs used for the management of urinary tract infections. Briefly discuss their therapeutic status.

Penicillins and Cell-Wall-Synthesis Inhibitors

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Oct 2023

1. Oct 2023 · Paper 2 · Q10 · 5 marksDiscuss the pharmacotherapy of the following: a) Acute ischemic stroke. [5] b) Methicillin Sensitive staphylococcus aureus infections. [5]

Cell Envelope Disruptors: β-Lactams, Glycopeptides, Lipopeptides

No chapter link yet3 questions · asked in 3 sessions · latest Apr 2023

1. Apr 2023 · Paper 2 · Q10 · 5 marksBriefly discuss the following: a) Newer β-lactam antibiotics. [5] b) Therapeutic potential of α2 agonists. [5]
2. Dec 2021 · Paper 2 · Q8 · 3+2+3+2 marksWrite down the classification, mechanism of action, clinical uses and adverse effects of penicillins. [3+2+3+2]
3. Dec 2012 · Paper 2 · Q10 · 4+6 marksClassify the antimicrobial agents acting by inhibiting the cell wall synthesis. Write the spectrum of activity and clinical uses of extended spectrum penicillin.

Newer Antibacterial Agents

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Dec 2022

1. Dec 2022 · Paper 2 · Q3 · 5+5 marksDiscuss the management of MRSA and VRE infections in intensive care facility. [5+5]

Miscellaneous Antibacterials: Aminoglycosides, Polymyxins

No chapter link yet1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Jun 2022

1. Jun 2022 · Paper 4 · Q4 · 10 marksDiscuss the recent advances in antimicrobial agents targeting gram-negative organisms. [10]

Antifungal Agents

No chapter link yet1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Oct 2023

1. Oct 2023 · Paper 2 · Q9 · 5+2+3 marksDiscuss the sites of action of antifungal agents. Write mechanism of action and therapeutic uses of amphotericin-B. Briefly discuss the merits of various preparations of amphotericin B. [5+2+3]

Antiviral Agents (Nonretroviral)

No chapter link yet3 questions · asked in 3 sessions · latest Jun 2022

1. Jun 2022 · Paper 4 · Q6 · 10 marksDescribe recent advances for the management of Covid-19. [10]
2. Jun 2020 · Paper 4 · Q3Status of various therapies in COVID-19. 10
3. Dec 2015 · Paper 2 · Q6 · 2+3 marksa) Classify antiviral drugs. Write the current guidelines regarding treatment of HIV infections. b) Mechanism of action and adverse effects of efavirenz. (2+3)+(3+2)

Antiretroviral Drugs

PharmaNotes Pro chapter2 questions · asked in 2 sessions · latest Jun 2022

1. Jun 2022 · Paper 4 · Q2 · 10 marksDiscuss novel drug targets for human immunodeficiency virus. [10]
2. Dec 2011 · Paper 2 · Q6 · 6+4 marksDiscuss the Pharmacology of Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors 6+4 with its applications.

Antiretroviral Agents and HIV Treatment

No chapter link yet6 questions · asked in 6 sessions · latest Dec 2025

1. Dec 2025 · Paper 2 · Q4 · 4+(3+3) marksEnumerate the various drugs available for treatment of HIV infection. Describe the mechanism of action and adverse effects of integrase inhibitors. [4+ (3+3)]
2. Oct 2023 · Paper 4 · Q2 · 5+5 marksClassify drugs used in the treatment of HIV. Elaborate the role of “integrase strand transfer inhibitors” in the management of HIV. [5+5]
3. Apr 2023 · Paper 2 · Q1 · 3+4+3 marksEnumerate anti-retroviral drugs. Discuss their regimens given for its management. What drugs are used for post-exposure prophylaxis in HIV infection. [3+4+3]
4. Dec 2022 · Paper 4 · Q3 · 5+5 marksDiscuss the recent advances in the management of HIV infection. What are the recent guidelines for post-exposure prophylaxis for HIV? [5+5]
5. Dec 2016 · Paper 3 · Q1 · 5+5 marksa) Drugs used for treatment of tuberculosis associated with HIV infection. b) Treatment of tubercular meningitis. 5+5
6. Dec 2014 · Paper 2 · Q4 · 2+8 marksWhat is the full form of HAART? Discuss briefly the NACO recommendation for prophylaxis of HIV infections including perinatal prophylaxis.

Antitubercular Drugs

PharmaNotes Pro chapter2 questions · asked in 2 sessions · latest Jun 2025

1. Jun 2025 · Paper 3 · Q10 · 10 marksDiscuss the screening methods for evaluation of anti-tubercular agents. [10]
2. Dec 2013 · Paper 2 · Q9 · 4+6 marksWhat do you understand by the term "DOTS"? Describe the management of TB as given in the latest RNTCP.

Antileprotic Drugs (Leprosy)

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Jun 2022

1. Jun 2022 · Paper 3 · Q6 · 10 marksDiscuss the screening models of anti-leprosy drugs. [10]

Tuberculosis and NTM, Leprosy

No chapter link yet7 questions · asked in 7 sessions · latest Jun 2025

1. Jun 2025 · Paper 2 · Q3 · 10 marksDescribe briefly the management of MDR and XDR tuberculosis as per the current guidelines. [10]
2. Oct 2024 · Paper 2 · Q5 · 5 marksDiscuss the pharmacotherapy of the following: a) New case of pulmonary tuberculosis having AIDS. [5] b) Variant angina. [5]
3. Oct 2023 · Paper 2 · Q6 · 5+5 marksDescribe the treatment protocol for multibacillary leprosy. Briefly discuss the management of lepra reactions. [5+5]
4. Dec 2022 · Paper 4 · Q2 · 10 marksDiscuss the guidelines for programmatic management of drug resistant tuberculosis. [10]
5. Jun 2022 · Paper 2 · Q9 · 10 marksDescribe pharmacotherapy for multi-drug resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB). [10]
6. Jun 2021 · Paper 4 · Q9 · 10 marksDiscuss the recent guidelines for the management of tuberculosis in India. [10]
7. Dec 2011 · Paper 3 · Q7 · 6+4 marksDiscuss the management of drug resistant tuberculosis. What 6+4 is extensive drug resistance (XDR) and what is the current strategy for its management.

Chemotherapy of Malaria

No chapter link yet5 questions · asked in 4 sessions · latest Oct 2024

1. Oct 2024 · Paper 2 · Q9 · 3+4+3 marksEnumerate the drugs used in treatment of malaria. Describe the pharmacotherapy of chloroquine resistant malaria. Add a note on suppressive prophylaxis of malaria. [3+4+3]
2. May 2024 · Paper 2 · Q3 · 10 marksWhat are the guidelines for treatment of P. falciparum malaria in India? [10]
3. Jun 2020 · Paper 2 · Q6 · 4+6 marksEnumerate antimalarials drugs. Discuss the pharmacotherapy of chloroquine resistant malaria. 4+6
4. Dec 2016 · Paper 2 · Q6 · 2+2 marksa) Uses and side effects of chloroquine. b) Pharmacotherapy of chloroquine resistant malaria. (2+2)+6
5. Dec 2016 · Paper 3 · Q2 · 5+5 marksa) Enumerate the drugs used for treatment of malaria. b) Advantages of artemisinin based combination therapy (ACT). 5+5

Antiprotozoal Drugs

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Jun 2020

1. Jun 2020 · Paper 2 · Q9 · 5+5 marksa) Antileishmanial agents. b) Protease inhibitors. 5+5

Anticancer Drugs: Classification and Principles

PharmaNotes Pro chapter2 questions · asked in 2 sessions · latest Jun 2025

1. Jun 2025 · Paper 4 · Q1 · 10 marksDescribe recent advances in the treatment of neoplastic diseases. [10]
2. Dec 2022 · Paper 1 · Q10 · 4+6 marksDefine altered metabolic signature in cancer. Discuss the role of drug resistance in cancer. [4+6]

Cytotoxics and Antimetabolites

No chapter link yet1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Dec 2012

1. Dec 2012 · Paper 2 · Q8 · 10 marksDescribe therapeutic potential of paclitaxel in cancer chemotherapy.

Protein Kinase Inhibitors and Pathway-Targeted Small Molecules

No chapter link yet1 question · asked in 1 session · latest May 2024

1. May 2024 · Paper 2 · Q5 · 3+7 marksWhat are the key differences between monoclonal antibodies and small molecule kinase inhibitors? Discuss the drugs targeting growth factor receptor signaling in neoplastic diseases. [3+7]

Monoclonal Antibodies & Immunotherapy in Cancer

PharmaNotes Pro chapter2 questions · asked in 2 sessions · latest Dec 2022

1. Dec 2022 · Paper 4 · Q6 · 3+5+2 marksDescribe the principle, applications and adverse effects of chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy. [3+5+2]
2. Jun 2022 · Paper 3 · Q8 · 10 marksDescribe hybridoma technology and its clinical significance with future applications. [10]

Antibodies, CAR T Cells, Proteins for Cancer

No chapter link yet4 questions · asked in 4 sessions · latest Oct 2024

1. Oct 2024 · Paper 2 · Q10 · 7+3 marksDescribe role of monoclonal antibodies in the treatment of cancer. Add a note on immunoscintography. [7+3]
2. Oct 2023 · Paper 4 · Q3 · 10 marksDiscuss the role of immune checkpoint inhibitors in cancer chemotherapy. [10]
3. Apr 2023 · Paper 4 · Q7 · 5+5 marksDescribe the diagnostic and therapeutic role of monoclonal antibodies in cancer treatment. [5+5]
4. Dec 2011 · Paper 3 · Q9 · 2+5+3 marksDefine monoclonal antibodies. Discuss their therapeutic 2+5+3 potential and adverse effects.

Hormonal Management of Breast Cancer

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Jun 2022

1. Jun 2022 · Paper 2 · Q5 · 10 marksDescribe drugs used in the treatment of breast carcinoma. [10]

Hormones in Cancer Therapy

No chapter link yet1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Dec 2012

1. Dec 2012 · Paper 3 · Q8 · 3+3+2+2 marksDiscuss anastrozole with special reference to its: a) Mechanism of action b) Uses c) Selection of patients d) Clinical toxicity

Dermatological Pharmacology

No chapter link yet1 question · asked in 1 session · latest May 2024

1. May 2024 · Paper 4 · Q6 · 6+4 marksDiscuss the treatment options and recent developments for treatment of psoriasis. [6+4]

New Drug Development & Approval Process

PharmaNotes Pro chapter7 questions · asked in 6 sessions · latest Dec 2025

1. Dec 2025 · Paper 1 · Q10 · 3+7 marksWhat is good laboratory practice (GLP)? Describe OECD principles of GLP in reference to pharmaceutical drug development. [3+7]
2. Dec 2025 · Paper 3 · Q9 · 3+7 marksMention the required documents/data that need to be submitted to the drug regulators for obtaining IND approval. Discuss the battery of safety studies conducted before IND application. [3+7]
3. May 2024 · Paper 3 · Q7 · 2+8 marksDescribe the processes of drug discovery. What steps are taken to evaluate an unknown compound for clinical utility? [2+8]
4. Oct 2023 · Paper 4 · Q7 · 5+5 marksEnumerate various methods used in drug discovery. Write the principle of “antisense approach” treatment with suitable examples. [5+5]
5. Dec 2021 · Paper 4 · Q7 · 5+5 marksDiscuss expedited drug approval. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the same? [5+5]
6. Jun 2021 · Paper 3 · Q9 · 10 marksDescribe the principles of Good Laboratory Practices. [10]
7. Dec 2015 · Paper 1 · Q9 · 5+5 marksa) Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) in drug development. b) Its advantages and limitations. 5+5

Laboratory Animals in Pharmacology

PharmaNotes Pro chapter6 questions · asked in 6 sessions · latest Jun 2025

1. Jun 2025 · Paper 3 · Q7 · 10 marksMake a comparative evaluation of CCSEA and ARRIVE guidelines for animal experimentations. [10]
2. Oct 2024 · Paper 3 · Q9 · 5+5 marksDiscuss the constitution and functions of Institutional Animal Ethics Committee (IAEC). [5+5]
3. Apr 2023 · Paper 3 · Q8 · 6+4 marksDiscuss the contribution of animal experimentation in biomedical science research till date. Write the limitations of animal experimentation. [6+4]
4. Dec 2022 · Paper 3 · Q4 · 5+5 marksDiscuss the CPCSEA guidelines for the use small animal. What are the parallels in the functioning of Institutional ethics committee for clinical trials in human and experimentation in small animal. [5+5]
5. Jun 2020 · Paper 3 · Q4 · 5+5 marksDiscuss the constitution & functions of Institutional Animal Ethical Committee (IAEC). 5+5
6. Dec 2014 · Paper 1 · Q10 · 8+2 marksDiscuss the roles and responsibility of an Institutional Animal Ethics Committee (IAEC). What is the role of the Ministry of Forest and Environment in the functioning of an IAEC?

New Drugs & Clinical Trials Rules, 2019

PharmaNotes Pro chapter5 questions · asked in 4 sessions · latest Dec 2022

1. Dec 2022 · Paper 1 · Q2 · 4+6 marksDiscuss compensation rules in clinical trial related serious adverse event. Describe how to calculate the quantum of compensation in clinical trial related injury/death? [4+6]
2. Jun 2020 · Paper 4 · Q7Salient features of the new drugs and clinical trials rule (2019) in India. 10
3. Dec 2016 · Paper 1 · Q9 · 2+4+4 marksa) Define Good Clinical Practice (GCP) in drug development. b) What are the principles of GCP? c) Enumerate advantages of GCP. 2+4+4
4. Dec 2016 · Paper 4 · Q8 · 4+3+3 marksa) Procedure and requirements for New Drug Application (NDA) as per schedule in India. b) Conditions where waiver of phase III clinical trial can be considered. c) Issues regarding compensation in clinical trial related injury. 4+3+3
5. Dec 2014 · Paper 4 · Q4 · 2+4+4 marksDiscuss the role of CTRI, schedule Y and GCP guidelines in the conduct of a clinical trial.

Screening Methods for Anti-inflammatory & Analgesic Drugs

PharmaNotes Pro chapter5 questions · asked in 5 sessions · latest Dec 2025

1. Dec 2025 · Paper 3 · Q8 · 10 marksDescribe the various experimental evaluation methods to screen a potential analgesic drug. [10]
2. Oct 2023 · Paper 3 · Q4 · 10 marksDiscuss the preclinical screening methods for a new molecule likely to be useful in the treatment of acute pain. [10]
3. Apr 2023 · Paper 3 · Q3 · 10 marksDescribe various preclinical screening methods for evaluation of an analgesic agent. [10]
4. Dec 2021 · Paper 3 · Q2 · 6+4 marksDiscuss the methods for evaluating a drug for analgesic activity in preclinical and clinical models. [6+4]
5. Jun 2020 · Paper 3 · Q2Discuss experimental methods for evaluation of a potential analgesic agent. 10

Biomarkers in Drug Development

PharmaNotes Pro chapter4 questions · asked in 4 sessions · latest Dec 2025

1. Dec 2025 · Paper 4 · Q1 · 3+7 marksDefine metabolomics. Discuss their role in drug development giving suitable examples. [3+7]
2. Jun 2025 · Paper 1 · Q8 · 10 marksDiscuss safety/efficacy biomarkers and surrogate markers with suitable examples. [10]
3. May 2024 · Paper 1 · Q4 · 2+4+4 marksDefine metabolomics. What are the analytical techniques used in metabolome profiling? Discuss the applications of metabolomic profiling. [2+4+4]
4. Dec 2011 · Paper 1 · Q2 · 6+4 marksDefine Biomarkers and mention the types of Biomarkers used 6+4 in drug discovery. Outline their potential uses and limitations in . Pharmacological research.

Blinding, Randomization & Allocation Concealment in Clinical Trials

PharmaNotes Pro chapter4 questions · asked in 3 sessions · latest Jun 2025

1. Jun 2025 · Paper 3 · Q2 · 4+(3+3) marksWhat is Randomized Controlled Trial (RCT)? Describe its usefulness and limitations in clinical research. [4+(3+3)]
2. Jun 2025 · Paper 4 · Q3 · 10 marksWhat are various confounding factors in clinical trials? Briefly discuss the double-blind design. [10]
3. Dec 2021 · Paper 3 · Q7 · 3+3+4 marksWrite what you understand by bias in a research study. Discuss the reasons for the same and the measures that can be used to decrease bias in results. [3+3+4]
4. Jun 2021 · Paper 4 · Q5 · 10 marksDiscuss the various biases in clinical trials. [10]

High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) in Pharmacology

PharmaNotes Pro chapter4 questions · asked in 4 sessions · latest Oct 2024

1. Oct 2024 · Paper 3 · Q3 · 2+3+5 marksWhat is chromatography? What are its various types? Describe the principle, advantages and shortcomings of high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). [2+3+5]
2. Dec 2022 · Paper 3 · Q6 · 2+3+5 marksWhat is chromatography? What are its various types? Give an account of high-performance liquid chromatography. [2+3+5]
3. Dec 2015 · Paper 2 · Q8 · 5+5 marksPrinciple and uses of: a) Spectrophotometer b) LCMS. 5+5
4. Dec 2014 · Paper 2 · Q9 · 5+5 marksDiscuss the principles and uses of: a) Positron Emission Tomography (PET) b) HPLC

Institutional Ethics Committee (IEC)

PharmaNotes Pro chapter4 questions · asked in 4 sessions · latest Dec 2025

1. Dec 2025 · Paper 3 · Q10 · 5+3+2 marksDiscuss the basic ethical principles in clinical trials. What are the different types of reviews done by IEC based on study types? Which types of studies can apply for waiver of ethical approval? [5+3+2]
2. Oct 2023 · Paper 4 · Q8 · 5+5 marksEnumerate the institutional bodies to protect the rights of clinical trial participants. Briefly discuss their cardinal principles and composition of each. [5+5]
3. Dec 2016 · Paper 4 · Q4 · 5+5 marksa) What are protocol violations in a clinical trial? b) Guidelines for accredition of ethics committees in India. 5+5
4. Dec 2012 · Paper 1 · Q3 · 4+4+2 marksAs a clinical pharmacologist, you are requested to set up an Institutional Ethical Committee (IEC) in your institution: a) Outline the principles and guidelines that the IEC should follow. b) Enumerate the functions of the IEC. c) List the members who should constitute the IEC.

Phases of Clinical Trials in Drug Development

PharmaNotes Pro chapter4 questions · asked in 4 sessions · latest Dec 2025

1. Dec 2025 · Paper 4 · Q5 · 3+(4+3) marksWhat is a multicentric clinical trial? Describe the methods and issues in conduct of a multicentric clinical trial. [3+(4+3)]
2. May 2024 · Paper 1 · Q7 · 4+6 marksGive an account of Phase-1 clinical trials. Briefly discuss the designs in Phase 1 clinical trial of an antiepileptic drugs. [4+6]
3. Dec 2022 · Paper 3 · Q10 · 10 marksDiscuss clinical methods for the evaluation of a compound proved to be safe and have anti- inflammatory potential in pre-clinical studies. [10]
4. Dec 2021 · Paper 3 · Q4 · 10 marksDiscuss the various phases of clinical evaluation of new drug candidate (NCE). [10]

Sample Size Determination

PharmaNotes Pro chapter4 questions · asked in 4 sessions · latest Oct 2023

1. Oct 2023 · Paper 3 · Q6 · 5+5 marksWhat is sampling error and its impact on drug screening program? Enumerate methods to reduce sampling errors during preclinical phase of drug development. [5+5]
2. Dec 2021 · Paper 3 · Q6 · 6+4 marksDiscuss the quantitative and qualitative role of a sample in drug research. How can the errors in drug research occurring due to sample inappropriateness be decreased? [6+4]
3. Jun 2021 · Paper 3 · Q7 · 4 marksa) Which are the sampling errors in drug screening program? [3] b) What is the impact of sampling errors? [3] c) Enumerate the ways of reducing these errors. [4]
4. Jun 2020 · Paper 3 · Q5 · 5+5 marksa) Sample size calculation in clinical trials. b) H index. 5+5

Adaptive Clinical Trial Designs

PharmaNotes Pro chapter3 questions · asked in 3 sessions · latest Oct 2023

1. Oct 2023 · Paper 4 · Q5 · 10 marksWrite important features of sequential trial design. [10]
2. Dec 2022 · Paper 4 · Q7 · 6+4 marksDiscuss briefly the adaptive clinical trial designs and its challenges. [6+4]
3. Jun 2022 · Paper 4 · Q5 · 10 marksWrite about adaptive designs in clinical trials. [10]

Alternatives to Animal Experiments

PharmaNotes Pro chapter3 questions · asked in 3 sessions · latest Jun 2025

1. Jun 2025 · Paper 1 · Q5 · 5+5 marksWhat is the concept of 4Rs in research on experimental animals? Discuss the role of CCSEA in research on experimental animals. [5+5]
2. Oct 2023 · Paper 3 · Q7 · 5+5 marksWhat are the principles of 4 R's? Discuss the status of in-vitro screening methods as an adjuvant or alternative to the animal experiments in the drug development with suitable examples. [5+5]
3. Dec 2015 · Paper 1 · Q6 · 5+5 marksAlternatives to animal experiment in drug development process, and their advantages and disadvantages. 5+5

Normal Distribution

PharmaNotes Pro chapter3 questions · asked in 3 sessions · latest Oct 2023

1. Oct 2023 · Paper 3 · Q10 · 5+5 marksWhat is normal distribution? What are the prerequisites for applying parametric tests? [5+5]
2. Dec 2022 · Paper 3 · Q9 · 2+8 marksWhat is normal distribution? Describe the tests of significance which can be applied on normally distributed data. [2+8]
3. Dec 2021 · Paper 3 · Q10 · 5+5 marksDiscuss what you understand by normal distribution of a parameter. What is the significance of knowing this information while analyzing results in a research study? [5+5]

Transgenic Animals & Animal Models of Disease

PharmaNotes Pro chapter3 questions · asked in 3 sessions · latest Oct 2024

1. Oct 2024 · Paper 3 · Q8 · 3+3+4 marksWhat are transgenic animals? Describe the techniques for their production. What is their application in experimental research? [3+3+4]
2. Apr 2023 · Paper 3 · Q2 · 5 marksa) Cumulative dose response curve. [5] b) Transgenic animals in research. [5]
3. Dec 2011 · Paper 1 · Q1Discuss the role of transgenic animals in drug research. 10

Alternatives to the Use of Animals in Drug Research

PharmaNotes Pro chapter2 questions · asked in 2 sessions · latest Apr 2023

1. Apr 2023 · Paper 3 · Q1 · 4+(3+3) marksWhat are cell line studies? Discuss their advantages and limitations. [4+(3+3)]
2. Dec 2011 · Paper 1 · Q4 · 5+5 marksDiscuss with suitable examples alternatives to animal 5+5 experimentation in biomedical research. Discuss their advantages and limitations.

Declaration of Helsinki and Ethical Principles in Research

PharmaNotes Pro chapter2 questions · asked in 2 sessions · latest Jun 2025

1. Jun 2025 · Paper 4 · Q4 · 10 marksDiscuss briefly the ethical considerations for clinical trials on vulnerable population with special reference to the Indian population. [10]
2. Dec 2021 · Paper 3 · Q9 · 10 marksDiscuss the pre-requisites for conducting research in human subjects. [10]

Euthanasia in Experimental Animals

PharmaNotes Pro chapter2 questions · asked in 2 sessions · latest Dec 2025

1. Dec 2025 · Paper 3 · Q1 · 2+3+5 marksWhat is CCSEA? Describe its functions. What are the methods of euthanasia approved for rodents as per CCSEA guidelines? [2+3+5]
2. May 2024 · Paper 3 · Q4 · 6+4 marksDiscuss the parallels in ethical issues in animal and human research? Write a short note on euthanasia techniques for animal experimentation as per CPCSEA/CCSEA guidelines. [6+4]

High-Throughput Screening

PharmaNotes Pro chapter2 questions · asked in 2 sessions · latest Jun 2020

1. Jun 2020 · Paper 3 · Q6 · 5+5 marksa) Describe High-throughput Drug Screening Methods b) Discuss the importance and principle of high pressure liquid chromatography. 5+5
2. Dec 2016 · Paper 1 · Q4 · 2+3+5 marksa) Which are the sampling errors in drug screening program? b) What is the impact of sampling errors? c) Enumerate the ways of reducing these errors. 2+3+5

P-value and Statistical Significance

PharmaNotes Pro chapter2 questions · asked in 2 sessions · latest Jun 2025

1. Jun 2025 · Paper 3 · Q6 · 10 marksExplain in brief the differences between statistical and clinical significance. [10]
2. Dec 2022 · Paper 3 · Q8 · 3+7 marksWhat is null hypothesis? Discuss the steps for hypothesis testing. [3+7]

Questionnaires in Drug Evaluation

PharmaNotes Pro chapter2 questions · asked in 2 sessions · latest Dec 2025

1. Dec 2025 · Paper 1 · Q5 · 2+3+5 marksDefine medication adherence. Discuss the factors influencing patient's adherence to medication. How to assess and improve medication adherence in patients? [2+3+5]
2. Dec 2012 · Paper 1 · Q10 · 4+6 marksWhat do you understand by "Quality of Life" assessment in a research protocol? Explain the significance of this tool giving suitable example.

Student t-Test in Biostatistics

PharmaNotes Pro chapter2 questions · asked in 2 sessions · latest Oct 2024

1. Oct 2024 · Paper 3 · Q5 · 10 marksDescribe briefly the various parametric tests used in statistical analysis. [10]
2. Jun 2022 · Paper 3 · Q7 · 10 marksDescribe various parametric tests used in reasearch. [10]

Actophotometer

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Dec 2021

1. Dec 2021 · Paper 3 · Q3 · 6+4 marksDiscuss methods available for evaluating psychomotor activity of a drug. What precautions must be taken while doing the same. [6+4]

Animal Models of Learning, Memory & Cognition

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Jun 2022

1. Jun 2022 · Paper 3 · Q3 · 10 marksDescribe battery of tests for neurobehavioral assessments in an animal experiment study for neurological disease. [10]

ARO-CRO Model in Clinical Trials

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Jun 2025

1. Jun 2025 · Paper 3 · Q8 · 10 marksWhat is an academic clinical trial? What are the differences with respect to industry sponsored clinical trials? [10]

Bioassay

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Apr 2023

1. Apr 2023 · Paper 3 · Q10 · 2+(2+6) marksWrite what is a drug assay. Enumerate and discuss the types of drug assay giving suitable examples. [2+(2+ 6)]

Clinical Trial Registry of India (CTRI)

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Dec 2016

1. Dec 2016 · Paper 4 · Q2 · 5+5 marksa) Role and responsibilities of DSMB in clinical trials. b) Clinical trial registry of India – Role and functioning. 5+5

Drug Schedules (Drugs & Cosmetics Act)

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Jun 2022

1. Jun 2022 · Paper 4 · Q1 · 5+5 marksClassify medical devices and regulations of medical devices in India. [5+5]

Drugs in Renal Failure

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest May 2024

1. May 2024 · Paper 1 · Q8 · 5+5 marksBriefly discuss the principles for prescribing drugs in patients with renal and hepatic dysfunction. [5+5]

Flame Photometry in Analytical Pharmacology

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Dec 2016

1. Dec 2016 · Paper 1 · Q5 · 5+5 marksa) Principle of spectrometry technique. b) Its utility in clinical practice with suitable examples. 5+5

Meta-Analysis and Systematic Review

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Jun 2020

1. Jun 2020 · Paper 3 · Q10 · 2+3+5 marksWhat is a forest plot? Where is it used? How will you read and assess a study/studies with the help of it? 2+3+5 ************

Non-parametric Tests

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Dec 2011

1. Dec 2011 · Paper 1 · Q10 · 5+5 marksDiscuss paiametric and non parametric tests in evaluating 5+5 results of biomedical research. Mention different tests and their applicability. POSSESSION/USE OF CELL PHONES OR ANY SACH ELECTRONIC GADGETS IS NOT PERMITTED INSIDE I THE EXAMINATION HALL NATIONAL BOARD OF EXAMINATIONS FINAL EXAM DECEMBER 2011 PHARMACOLOGY PAPER.II PHARMA IDI11I34II' Time : 3 hours Max. Marks : 100 Attempt all questions in order. Each question carries 10 marks.

P-drugs & Rational Prescribing

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Dec 2014

1. Dec 2014 · Paper 1 · Q9 · 4+(3+3) marksa) What do you understand by the following terms: I. Drug action II. Drug effect III. Efficacy of drug IV. Potency of drug b) What do you understand by 'P' drug concept? Discuss the advantages of 'P' drug concept.

Screening Methods for Anti-Asthmatic Drugs

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Dec 2013

1. Dec 2013 · Paper 1 · Q9 · 4+6 marksEnumerate the screening methods for evaluation of antihistaminic potential of a drug. Describe one of the above method in detail which may be used for screening of drugs useful in the treatment of acute anaphylaxis.

Screening Methods for Antiepileptic Drugs

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Dec 2021

1. Dec 2021 · Paper 3 · Q1 · 10 marksDescribe the models available for screening a drug for antiepileptic activity. [10]

Screening Methods for Antipsychotic Agents

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Dec 2013

1. Dec 2013 · Paper 1 · Q10 · 3+4+3 marksDiscuss the usefulness and limitation for the use of animals as experimental models for studying drug effects. Explain in details the experimental modes of "Condition Avoidance Response". Discuss the significance and usefulness of "Condition Avoidance Response".

Screening of Antianginal Drugs

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest May 2024

1. May 2024 · Paper 3 · Q3 · 10 marksDiscuss the screening methods for evaluation of ant-anginal agents. [10]

Screening of Antianxiety Drugs

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Dec 2013

1. Dec 2013 · Paper 1 · Q6 · 4+6 marksEnumerate the screening methods to evaluate anxiolytic potential of a drug. Describe any one method in detail.

Screening of Anticoagulant & Antithrombotic Drugs

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Jun 2022

1. Jun 2022 · Paper 3 · Q2 · 10 marksDescribe the models available for screening a drug for anti-platelet activity. [10]

Screening of Antidepressant Drugs

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Oct 2024

1. Oct 2024 · Paper 3 · Q4 · 5 marksa) Experimental evaluation methods for a potential anti-depressant agent. [5] b) Experimental methods to induce endocrinal hypertension. [5]

Screening of Antihyperlipidemic Drugs

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Oct 2023

1. Oct 2023 · Paper 3 · Q3 · 10 marksDiscuss the pre-clinical screening methods for a new molecule likely to be useful in dyslipidaemia. [10]

Surrogate Markers in Clinical Trials

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Jun 2020

1. Jun 2020 · Paper 4 · Q2Cardiovascular Outcome trials (CVOT). 10

Type I & Type II Errors and Statistical Power

PharmaNotes Pro chapter1 question · asked in 1 session · latest Oct 2024

1. Oct 2024 · Paper 3 · Q6 · 5+5 marksDefine Null hypothesis and Alternate hypothesis respectively with special reference to their significance in clinical trials. Explain type I and type II errors with examples. [5+5]

Miscellaneous

No chapter link yet83 questions · asked in 17 sessions · latest Dec 2025

1. Dec 2025 · Paper 1 · Q6 · 4+6 marksWhat are the intellectual property rights (IPR) and patents? Discuss IPR issues in drug development. [4+6]
2. Dec 2025 · Paper 3 · Q2 · 2+(3+3+2) marksWhat are radioimmunoassay studies? Describe their principle, advantages and limitations. [2+(3+3+2)]
3. Dec 2025 · Paper 3 · Q4 · 2+(4+4) marksWhat are biosensors? Write their applications in drug development and pharmacotherapy. [2+(4+4)]
4. Dec 2025 · Paper 3 · Q7Describe the principle and uses of following: a) Student's t-test. [2.5] b) Analysis of Covariance. [2.5] c) Kaplan-Meier curves. [2.5] d) Pearson's r. [2.5]
5. Dec 2025 · Paper 4 · Q6 · 4+3+3 marksDescribe the applications, ethical concern and limitations of artificial intelligence in drug development and medication use. [4+3+3]
6. Dec 2025 · Paper 4 · Q9 · 5 marksDescribe the following: a) Randomization and blinding in clinical trials. [5] b) Organ-on-a-chip. [5]
7. Jun 2025 · Paper 1 · Q4 · 10 marksDescribe importance of photo - pharmacology in drug development. [10]
8. Jun 2025 · Paper 2 · Q6 · 4+3+3 marksExplain briefly dope test, anti-doping rule violations and therapeutic use exemptions. [4+3+3]
9. Jun 2025 · Paper 2 · Q8 · 3+7 marksWhat is a placebo? Discuss the role of placebo in clinical trials. [3+7]
10. Jun 2025 · Paper 3 · Q4 · 10 marksCritically comment and compare research article, systematic review and meta-analysis. [10]
11. Jun 2025 · Paper 3 · Q5 · 10 marksDescribe pre-clinical models for evaluation of anti-cancer drugs. [10]
12. Oct 2024 · Paper 1 · Q10 · 2+5+3 marksDefine translational pharmacology. Describe the need of translational pharmacology. Discuss the challenges in translational research. [2+5+3]
13. Oct 2024 · Paper 3 · Q1 · 5+(3+2) marksDiscuss various alternatives to animal experiments. Write their advantages & limitations. [5+(3+2)]
14. Oct 2024 · Paper 3 · Q7 · 2+3+5 marksDefine the term Bioassay. What are the principles of Bioassay? Describe various types of Bioassays. [2+3+5]
15. May 2024 · Paper 2 · Q6 · 4+6 marksBriefly describe potassium channels and discuss their modulators. [4+6]
16. May 2024 · Paper 3 · Q2 · 2+5+3 marksWhat is meta-analysis? Discuss the steps for conducting a meta-analysis? What are the limitations of meta-analysis? [2+5+3]
17. May 2024 · Paper 3 · Q5 · 10 marksDescribe the pre-clinical models for evaluation of anti-diabetic agents. [10]
18. May 2024 · Paper 3 · Q6 · 4+6 marksWhat is the importance of sample size in clinical trials? Describe the methods for sample size calculation for clinical trials. [4+6]
19. May 2024 · Paper 3 · Q8 · 3+4+3 marksDescribe briefly superiority, non-inferiority and equivalence trials. [3+4+3]
20. May 2024 · Paper 3 · Q9 · 2+5+3 marksEnumerate non-parametric tests? Briefly describe Chi square test and its modifications for statistical analysis of data? [2+5+3]
21. May 2024 · Paper 4 · Q2 · 2+3+5 marksDefine a placebo. What are the possible mechanisms for placebo effect? Describe the role of placebo in clinical trials. [2+3+5]
22. Oct 2023 · Paper 1 · Q3 · 5+(3+2) marksWhat are the attributes of a surrogate marker? Write advantages and limitations, with examples of using surrogate markers as efficacy end points. [5+(3+2)]
23. Oct 2023 · Paper 3 · Q2 · 5+5 marksWhat are confidence intervals? How confidence intervals are useful in calculating equivalence in clinical trials.[5+5]
24. Oct 2023 · Paper 3 · Q8 · 5+5 marksWrite the working principle of ELISA technique. Write a brief note on sandwitch ELISA. [5+5]
25. Oct 2023 · Paper 4 · Q1 · 5+5 marksWhat is randomisation? What are the types and ethical considerations for randomisation. [5+5]
26. Apr 2023 · Paper 3 · Q4 · 5 marksa) Schild Plot. [5] b) Preclinical evaluation of anti-anxiety drugs. [5]
27. Apr 2023 · Paper 3 · Q6 · 5 marksa) Therapeutic exploratory and confirmatory clinical trials. [5] b) Interpretation of Gaussian curve. [5]
28. Apr 2023 · Paper 3 · Q7 · 3+(2+5) marksDefine linear regression. Discuss giving examples the types and utility of linear regression in research. [3+(2+5)]
29. Apr 2023 · Paper 3 · Q9 · 5 marksa) Arithmetic amd Geometric means. [5] b) Coefficient of variation. [5]
30. Apr 2023 · Paper 4 · Q2 · 10 marksDiscuss the recent advances in the management of cardiovascular diseases. [10]
31. Dec 2022 · Paper 3 · Q1 · 5+5 marksDescribe Kaplan-Meier curve for survival analysis. Write a brief account on Cox proportional hazard analysis model. [5+5]
32. Dec 2022 · Paper 3 · Q2 · 10 marksDescribe the preclinical models for evaluation of anti-psychotic drugs. [10]
33. Dec 2022 · Paper 3 · Q5 · 10 marksDiscuss the methods for preclinical evaluation of anti-hypertensive agents? [10]
34. Dec 2022 · Paper 3 · Q7 · 10 marksDiscuss the methods for preclinical evaluation of anti-diabetic agents. [10]
35. Dec 2022 · Paper 4 · Q1 · 5+5 marksDescribe the methods of sampling in clinical trials. Discuss the various techniques of randomization with suitable examples. [5+5]
36. Dec 2022 · Paper 4 · Q4 · 5+5 marksDiscuss the methods for evaluation of a journal and an author. [5+5]
37. Dec 2022 · Paper 4 · Q9 · 4+3+3 marksOutline the principles of good clinical practices for clinical trials. Discuss the roles and responsibilities of member secretary of instutional ethics committee and the principle investigator of a clinical trial. [4+3+3]
38. Jun 2022 · Paper 3 · Q1 · 5+5 marksDescribe regulation of experimental animal research in India and alternatives to animal experiments. [5+5]
39. Jun 2022 · Paper 3 · Q4 · 10 marksDiscuss the preclinical models for evaluation of anti-hypertensive activity of a new molecule. [10]
40. Jun 2022 · Paper 3 · Q5 · 5+5 marksDescribe about statistical significance versus clinical significance with examples. [5+5]
41. Jun 2022 · Paper 3 · Q9 · 10 marksExplain Type I and type II errors. [10]
42. Jun 2022 · Paper 4 · Q7 · 10 marksDiscuss the roles and composition of Institutional Ethics Committee as per ICMR guideline and NDCT Rule, 2019. [10]
43. Jun 2022 · Paper 4 · Q9 · 5 marksa) Role of placebo in clinical trials. [5] b) Informed consent. [5]
44. Dec 2021 · Paper 3 · Q8 · 10 marksDiscuss statistical techniques available for measuring association and correlation between two measures. [10]
45. Dec 2021 · Paper 4 · Q1 · 10 marksDiscuss the salient features of New Drugs and Clinical Trial rules in India (NDCT Rule 2019). [10]
46. Jun 2021 · Paper 3 · Q2 · 5+5 marksDefine protocol violation and protocol deviation. Explain by giving suitable examples. [5+5]
47. Jun 2021 · Paper 3 · Q3 · 10 marksDescribe the composition, roles and responsibilities of Institutional Ethics Committee. [10]
48. Jun 2021 · Paper 3 · Q4 · 10 marksDiscuss the role of artificial intelligence in research and drug development with examples. [10]
49. Jun 2021 · Paper 3 · Q5 · 5+5 marksHow is sample size calculated for a clinical study? What are the clinical and statistical significance of appropriate sample size? [5+5]
50. Jun 2021 · Paper 3 · Q8 · 5 marksa) Metanalysis. [5] b) Non-parametric tests. [5]
51. Jun 2021 · Paper 3 · Q10 · 5+5 marksWrite in detail about various types of bioassay methods. Write about their advantages and disadvantages. [5+5]
52. Jun 2020 · Paper 3 · Q1 · 5+5 marksOutline the differences between Intent to Treat and Per Protocol analyses. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of each of them. 5+5
53. Jun 2020 · Paper 3 · Q3 · 5+5 marksa) Parametric Versus Non-Parametric tests. b) Confidence Intervals. 5+5
54. Jun 2020 · Paper 3 · Q7Discuss the experimental evaluation methods for a potential diuretic agent. Add a note on LIPSCHITZ test. 10
55. Jun 2020 · Paper 3 · Q8 · 5+5 marksa) Kaplan meir survival curve. b) Systematic Review. 5+5
56. Jun 2020 · Paper 3 · Q9 · 5+5 marksa) R-Principles of Alternatives to Animal Experimentation. b) Proteomics. 5+5
57. Jun 2020 · Paper 4 · Q1 · 5+5 marksa) Role of placebo in therapeutics. b) Role of surrogate markers in clinical trials. 5+5
58. Jun 2020 · Paper 4 · Q9 · 5+5 marksa) Good Clinical Practice. b) Waiver of Informed Consent in a Clinical Trial. 5+5
59. Dec 2016 · Paper 1 · Q2 · 5+5 marksa) What is High Throughput Screening in drug development? b) Experimental screening methods for potential anti- arrhythmic activity of New Chemical Entity (NCE). 5+5
60. Dec 2016 · Paper 2 · Q3 · 5+5 marksPrinciple, applications and limitations of: a) HPLC b) ELISA 5+5
61. Dec 2016 · Paper 3 · Q10 · 5+5 marksa) Parametric versus Non-Parametric tests. b) Co-efficient of Variation. 5+5 **********************
62. Dec 2016 · Paper 4 · Q1 · 5+5 marksa) What is a surrogate marker in a clinical trial? b) What are their merits and demerits? 5+5
63. Dec 2016 · Paper 4 · Q5 · 5+5 marksa) Informed consent in clinical trials. b) Ethical issues in clinical trials in vulnerable population. 5+5
64. Dec 2015 · Paper 1 · Q2 · 5+5 marksa) Experimental Screening methods for potential anti-seizure activity of New Chemical Entity (NCE). b) Procedure, advantages & limitations of maximal electroshock model (MES) in rodents. 5+5
65. Dec 2015 · Paper 1 · Q4 · 5+5 marksa) Sample size calculation for a clinical study. b) Its clinical and statistical significance. 5+5
66. Dec 2015 · Paper 1 · Q5 · 5+5 marksa) Principles of ELISA technique. b) Its utility in clinical practice with suitable examples. 5+5
67. Dec 2015 · Paper 1 · Q10 · 5+5 marksa) Comparative assessment of three point and four point bio-assay. b) How to standardize the bio-assay apparatus? 5+5 **********************
68. Dec 2015 · Paper 3 · Q10 · 5+2+3 marksa) Type I and type II error b) Student ‘t’ test c) ANOVA test 5+2+3 **********************
69. Dec 2015 · Paper 4 · Q3 · 5+5 marksProcedure for Investigational New Drug (IND) and New Drug Applications (NDA) as per Schedule Y. 5+5
70. Dec 2015 · Paper 4 · Q4 · 5+5 marksa) Proof of concept in clinical trial. b) Therapeutic misconception 5+5
71. Dec 2015 · Paper 4 · Q9 · 5+5 marksa) Compensation in clinical trial. b) Role of Ethics Committee as per amendment of Schedule Y. 5+5
72. Dec 2014 · Paper 1 · Q5 · 2+8 marksWhat are the principles that govern biological standardization of a new drug? Discuss the methodology, advantages and disadvantages of a "four point drug assay" using a guinea pig ileum. Illustrate your answer with suitable diagrams.
73. Dec 2014 · Paper 1 · Q8 · 2+8 marksWhat do you understand by 'validation' of a questionnaire used for research? Briefly describe the process of validating a "quality of life" questionnaire for a research project.
74. Dec 2014 · Paper 3 · Q9 · 2+4+4 marksWhat are parametric and nonparametric tests employed in Research? When would you use the following test: a) Wilcoson Rank Sum Test b) Mann-Whitney U Test
75. Dec 2014 · Paper 4 · Q3 · 10 marksCompare and contrast between: a) Fixed dose drug combinations (FDC's) b) Drugs used in combinations
76. Dec 2013 · Paper 1 · Q7 · 3+3+4 marksExplain the following terms giving suitable examples: a) Fiducial limits of confidence b) Attributable risk c) Type I & Type II errors in Biostatistics
77. Dec 2012 · Paper 1 · Q2 · 2+4+4 marksWhat are enzyme linked immunoassays? Discuss briefly the principle involved in the enzyme immunoassay technique. Describe the methodology and evaluation procedures giving suitable examples.
78. Dec 2012 · Paper 1 · Q5 · 2+6+2 marksList the standard methodologies adopted for screening of antiepileptic agents. Describe any one methodology in detail. Discuss the parameters you will observe in this method.
79. Dec 2012 · Paper 1 · Q6 · 2+4+4 marksDefine meta-analysis. Discuss briefly merits and demerits of this giving suitable example.
80. Dec 2012 · Paper 1 · Q9 · 4+6 marksEnumerate the different screening methods to evaluate a drug having anti-peptic ulcer activity. Describe any one method in detail.
81. Dec 2011 · Paper 1 · Q5 · 5+5 marksExplain briefly the principle underlying Elisa technique and 5+5 mention its utility in therapeutics with examples.
82. Dec 2011 · Paper 1 · Q7 · 4+6 marksWhat are Bioassay and biological standardization? Explain 4+6 briefly types and application of Bioassay.
83. Dec 2011 · Paper 4 · Q1 · 2+3+2 marksWhat are vannilloid receptors? Enumerate the agonists of 2+3+2+3 these receptors. Discuss briefly their mechanism of action and clinical significance.

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